Browsing by Author "Wenzel, Paula M."

Now showing 1 - 7 of 7

Open Access
Analysis of cooling technologies in the data center sector on the basis of patent applications
(2024) Ott, Benjamin; Wenzel, Paula M.; Radgen, Peter
The cooling of server components has been developed over the past few years in order to meet increasing cooling requirements. The growth in performance and power density increases the cooling demand. To gain a better understanding of the evolution and possible future technology developments in the field of data center cooling, a patent analysis method was used with a focus on the server and computer room levels. After the patent extraction from the European patent database for the period 2000-2023, the search results were classified and analyzed. Most of the patents deal with air or liquid cooling. Since 2015, a technological shift from air to liquid cooling can be identified on the level of patent activities. In conclusion, from the patent analysis, it can be derived that liquid cooling will continue to gain in importance in the future and could also be combined with other approaches in the form of hybrid cooling. However, air cooling may still be relevant, even if the main cooling load is handled by liquid-based approaches. At the same time, the optimization potential for air cooling seems to have been largely exploited in comparison to liquid cooling, as can be seen from the falling number of the patent applications.
Open Access
Catalyzing cooling tower efficiency : a novel energy performance indicator and functional unit including climate and cooling demand normalization
(2023) Wenzel, Paula M.; Fensterle, Eva; Radgen, Peter
Energy and climate targets necessitate efficiency indicators to reflect resource-saving potentials. Prevailing indicators for cooling towers, however, often omit the effect of outside conditions. Hence, this study introduces an innovative indicator grounded in the energy efficiency ratio. Our proposed metric is the cost–benefit ratio between electricity demand and the thermodynamic minimum airflow. Thus, we call the novel indicator the airflow performance indicator. To validate its feasibility, we apply the indicator first to an extensive dataset encompassing 6575 cooling tower models and second to a year-long case study involving a data center’s wet cooling system. As a result, the energy performance indicator demonstrates that dry cooling requires eight times more minimum airflow at the median than evaporative cooling would, directly correlating to the fan power. Furthermore, efficiency benchmarks derived from the dataset of 6575 cooling tower models provide a comparative assessment of the case study. Defining the quantified benefit as minimum airflow additionally underscores the limitations of free cooling as the wet cooling system only partly covers the cooling demand, requiring chillers additionally. In conclusion, the indicator empowers the identification of energy-saving potentials in the selection, design, and operation of cooling towers. Moreover, the functional unit definition provides a foundation for future life cycle assessments of cooling towers, enhancing cooling tower efficiency and sustainability.
Open Access
Comparing exergy analysis and physical optimum method regarding an induction furnace
(2021) Wenzel, Paula M.; Radgen, Peter; Westermeyer, Jan
In order to achieve energy and climate goals, energy and resource efficiency are considered a key measure. Limit-value-oriented methods such as the exergy analysis and the physical optimum method are used to show the limits of efficiency improvement. In this context, the physical optimum represents the theoretical ideal reference process. Despite their similarities, no comprehensive comparison to the exergy analysis has been carried out yet. Thus, the purpose of this study is to close this gap by examining differences and intersections using the example of an induction furnace. The minimum energy input according to the physical optimum method is 1327 MJ/t whereas the exergy of the melting product is 1393 MJ/t, depending on transit flows taken into account. The exergy analysis extends considerably beyond the physical optimum method in terms of the complexity and accuracy of the assessment of material flows by using exergy units. The exergy analysis makes clear which exergy is linked to the losses and thus reveals the potential for coupling processes. This results in different areas of application for the two methods.
Open Access
Energy efficiency and environmental assessment of cooling towers
(Stuttgart : Universität Stuttgart, Institute of Energy Economics and Rational Energy Use, 2024) Wenzel, Paula M.; Radgen, Peter (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)
Cooling towers are becoming increasingly important as the demand for cooling facilities rises globally due to data centers, industrial cooling, and rising ambient temperatures. De-spite the prioritization for energy transition of heat recovery over cooling, cooling towers can offer an energy-efficient alternative to refrigeration through free cooling. At the same time, their electricity consumption, water usage, and environmental impacts require careful evalu-ation. However, prevailing environmental assessment methods lack comparability when it comes to quantifying the useful outputs of cooling towers to calculate their efficiency. This work introduces a methodological framework for identifying energy- and resource-efficient options during the selection, design, and operation of cooling towers. To systemati-cally identify the most feasible assessment methods, this thesis formulates comparison crite-ria and compares methods by means of a case study. Moreover, this work aims to delineate the physical and technical limitations of dry, wet, and hybrid cooling against waste-heat uti-lization and refrigeration. Furthermore, introducing a novel efficiency indicator satisfies the need for comparability across configurations and operational states. Based on a multi-criteria method comparison, a wet cooling tower in a data center was as-sessed using five methods: material flow analysis, life cycle inventory, life cycle assessment, exergy analysis, and life cycle exergy analysis. Moreover, data from 6730 cooling tower models of various types were collected and analyzed. Six types of package-type cooling tow-ers have been distinguished: dry, closed wet, open wet, and three types of hybrid systems, while defining one generalized system for all types enables comparability. The proposed efficiency indicator is the ratio between electricity demand and the thermodynamic mini-mum airflow. Subsequently, the indicator has been applied to a dataset of 6575 system mod-els and a year-long case study. Examining the dataset demonstrates the functional limits of cooling towers. For example, minimum outlet temperatures using evaporative cooling are up to 16 Kelvin lower than for dry cooling. Accordingly, the areas of application are highlighted depending on the follow-ing influencing factors: cooling tower approach, cooling temperatures, and outside condi-tions. Furthermore, the life cycle assessment of the case study stresses that electricity and water usage cause more than 97% of the environmental impacts in all the impact categories considered. Investigating the manufacturer data reveals ranges of electricity demand per heat load from 0.01 to 0.06 kWel/kWth, which allows for benchmarking and monitoring of existing plants. However, the specific electricity demand omits external and technical parameters. The method comparisons using the criteria metric and the case study also underscore the need for methodological refinement. This work therefore introduces a novel efficiency indi-cator and associated benchmarks that include normalization of ambient conditions and cool-ing demand. The indicator median demonstrates that dry cooling requires 8 times more min-imum airflow than evaporative cooling, which directly correlates to the fan power. At the same time, the physical and technical constraints are included, further underlining that the operating points of wet cooling towers would partly be unachievable with dry cooling. In conclusion, the challenge of normalizing dynamic technical and environmental conditions persists in prevailing methods. The method comparison leads to the conclusion that a materi-al flow analysis, including energy flows, mostly suffices as long as no impact assessment is required. The efficiency indicator and functional unit definition introduced here offer a reso-lution for identifying resource-saving potentials in cooling tower applications. The ineffi-ciency of the cooling tower can thereby be distinguished from adverse ambient conditions. Furthermore, the collected data provide benchmarks for various configurations. Overall, this thesis shall contribute to increasing the efficiency of cooling towers by means of comparing and refining existing environmental assessment methods. The thesis now ena-bles these methods to effectively identify and monitor efficiency potential with the aid of the novel efficiency indicator and dataset. On this basis, manufacturers and operators can im-plement target-aimed efficiency measures, as enhancing cooling tower efficiency is a minor yet important contribution to mitigating climate change and increasing sustainability.
Open Access
Extending effectiveness to efficiency : comparing energy and environmental assessment methods for a wet cooling tower
(2023) Wenzel, Paula M.; Radgen, Peter
Improving the environmental performance and energy efficiency of cooling towers requires systematic evaluation. However, methodological challenges emerge when applying typical environmental assessment methods to cooling towers. Hence, this paper compares the methods, analyzes their strengths and weaknesses, and proposes adaptions for evaluating cooling towers. As a case study, we applied five methods for assessing the wet cooling system of the high-performance data center in Stuttgart. These are material flow analysis (MFA), life cycle inventory, life cycle assessment (LCA), exergy analysis, and life cycle exergy analysis (LCEA). The comparison highlights that the LCA provides the most comprehensive environmental evaluation of cooling systems by considering several environmental impact dimensions. In the case of the wet cooling tower, however, electricity and water consumption cause more than 97% of the environmental impacts in all considered impact categories. Therefore, MFA containing energy flows suffices in many cases. Using exergy efficiency is controversially debated because exergy destruction is part of the technical principle applied in cooling towers and, therefore, difficult to interpret. The LCEA appears inappropriate because construction and disposal barely affect the exergy balance and are associated with transiting exergy. The method comparison demonstrates the need for further methodological development, such as dynamic extensions or the efficiency definition of cooling towers. The paper highlights that the methodological needs depend on the specific application.
Open Access
Free cooling for saving energy: technical market analysis of dry, wet, and hybrid cooling based on manufacturer data
(2023) Wenzel, Paula M.; Mühlen, Marc; Radgen, Peter
In light of energy and climate targets, free cooling unlocks a major resource-saving potential compared to refrigeration. To fill the knowledge gap in quantifying this saving potential, we aim to specify the physical and technical limits of cooling tower applications and provide comprehensive data on electricity and water consumption. For this purpose, we distinguish six types of package-type cooling towers: dry, closed wet, open wet, and three types of hybrid systems; defining one generalized system for all types enables comparability. Subsequently, we collect data from 6730 system models of 27 manufacturers, using technical information from data sheets and additional material. The analysis reveals, for example, specific ranges of electricity demand from 0.01 to 0.06 kWel/kWth and highlights influencing factors, including type and operating point. Refrigeration systems would consume approximately ten times more electricity per cooling capacity. Furthermore, the evaluation demonstrates the functional limits, for example, the minimum cooling temperatures. Minimum outlet temperatures using evaporative cooling are up to 16 K lower than for dry cooling. The collected data have crucial implications for designing and optimizing cooling systems, including potential analysis of free cooling and efficiency assessment of cooling towers in operation.
Open Access
Multi-criteria comparison of energy and environmental assessment approaches for the example of cooling towers
(2022) Wenzel, Paula M.; Radgen, Peter
Cooling towers remove economically or technically unusable heat using considerable amounts of electricity and, in many cases, water. Several approaches, which vary in methodology, scope, and level of detail, are used for environmental evaluations of these cooling systems. Although the chosen approach has a significant impact on decisions made at the plant level, no methodology has yet been standardized for selecting the approach that best serves the objectives of the evaluation. Thus, this paper provides comparison criteria for the systematic selection of suitable evaluation methods for cooling towers and classifies how the methods score in this respect. These criteria, such as ‘life cycle thinking’, ‘inventoried physical quantities’, ‘temporal resolution’, ‘formalization’, and ‘data availability’, are grouped by overall evaluation objectives such as ‘thoroughness’, ‘scientific soundness’, and ‘usability’. Subsequently, these criteria were used to compare material flow analysis, energy analysis, environmental network analysis, life cycle inventory, life cycle assessment, environmental footprint methods, emergy analysis, exergy analysis, and the physical optimum method. In conclusion, material flow analysis is best suited for the analysis of cooling towers when impact assessment is not required; otherwise, life cycle assessment meets most of the defined criteria. Moreover, only exergy-based methods allow for the inclusion of volatile ambient conditions.