05 Fakultät Informatik, Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik
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Item Open Access Effiziente Synthese konsistenter Graphen und ihre Anwendung in der Lokalisierung akustischer Quellen(2015) Kreißig, Martin; Yang, Bin (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)In dieser Arbeit wird das Problem der simultanen, akustischen Mehrquellenlokalisierung in echobehafteten Umgebungen genauer betrachtet und daran beispielhaft die Anwendungsmöglichkeit der Synthese konsistenter Graphen gezeigt und analysiert. Dafür werden die Grundlagen der akustischen Lokalisierung eingeführt und unterschiedliche Ansätze vorgestellt. Im Besonderen werden die laufzeitdifferenzbasierten Lokalisierungsverfahren betrachtet, die das Problem der uneindeutigen Zuweisung der Laufzeitdifferenzen zu den Quellen haben. Anhand dieses konkreten Anwendungsbeispiels der Lokalisierung wird die Problematik auf ein graphentheoretisches Problem abstrahiert. Deshalb werden zunächst die graphentheoretischen Grundlagen und bereits bekannte Algorithmen, wie die Tiefen- und Breitensuche eingeführt, die beide einen aufspannenden Baum suchen. Der aufspannende Baum ist notwendig, um die Menge der fundamentalen Maschen zu bestimmen. Die Synthese konsistenter Graphen erfolgt durch das Zusammenführen der konsistenten fundamentalen Maschen. Dabei unterscheidet man folgende Vorgehensweisen: die Synthese voll konsistenter Graphen, die jeder Kante des Eingangsgraphen ein konsistentes Kantengewicht zuweisen und die Synthese partiell konsistenter Graphen, die nur eine Teilmenge von Kanten beinhalten. Beide Vorgehensweisen basieren auf den konsistenten fundamentalen Maschen, welche die Nullsummenbedingung erfüllen. Die Synthese voll konsistenter Graphen wird über ein Backtracking-Verfahren realisiert. Die Synthese partiell konsistenter Graphen wird aus dem Kompatibilitäts-Konflikt-Graph abgeleitet, der ein neuer Typus von Graph ist und die drei unterschiedlichen Zustände zwischen den konsistenten fundamentalen Maschen beschreibt: 1) zwei konsistente Maschen haben keine gemeinsame Kanten, 2) zwei konsistente Maschen haben gemeinsame Kanten und identische Kantengewichte (kompatibel) und 3) zwei konsistente Maschen haben gemeinsame Kanten und unterschiedliche Kantengewichte (Konflikt). Um alle möglichen, partiell konsistenten Graphen zu synthetisieren, wird der neue Algorithmus CCGsearch eingeführt und auf Vollständigkeit bewiesen. Die Berechnungskomplexitäten der beiden Syntheseverfahren werden sowohl analytisch hergeleitet als auch durch Simulationen verifiziert.Item Open Access Molekularstrahlepitaxie und Charakterisierung unverspannter Silizium-Germanium-Zinn-Legierungen auf virtuellem Germanium-Substrat(2022) Schwarz, Daniel; Schulze, Jörg (Prof. Dr. habil.)Item Open Access Equalization and blind signal combining algorithms for mobile television broadcast reception(2016) Ahmed, Rana; Speidel, Joachim (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Item Open Access Organische Dünnschichttransistoren mit gedrucktem Halbleiter für Schaltungen und Anzeigen(2019) Strecker, Michael; Frühauf, Norbert (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt die Entwicklung von organischen Dünnschichttransistoren mit gedrucktem Halbleiter für Anwendungen der gedruckten Elektronik. Der Schwerpunkt liegt dabei auf der Untersuchung der Abscheidung organischer Halbleiterlösungen durch Tintenstrahldruck, während die Abscheidung und Strukturierung der übrigen Metallisierungen auf vorwiegend konventionellen Dünnschichtprozessen basieren. Entsprechend potentieller Einsatzmöglichkeiten gedruckter Elektronik wurde die Entwicklung an einen energiesparenden Betrieb ausgerichtet. Als Halbleiter wurden daher Lösungen aus einem Polymer (p-Typ) und einem Perylendiimid-Derivat (PDI, nTyp) eingesetzt, mit dem Ziel eines kompatiblen Prozesses zum Einsatz der Transistoren in komplementären Ansteuerschaltungen und Anzeigen. Ein niedriges Spannungsniveau wurde durch ein dünnes, anodisiertes Dielektrikum mit hohem Kapazitätsbelag realisiert. Die Halbleiter wurden vor allem hinsichtlich ihrer Verdruckbarkeit, der morphologischen Eigenschaften und des daraus resultierenden elektrischen Verhaltens der Transistoren untersucht. Eine zentrale Erkenntnis ist, dass die Halbleiter sich aufgrund ihrer unterschiedlichen Stoffeigenschaften in der Verarbeitbarkeit durch den Druckprozess erheblich unterscheiden. Der Polymerhalbleiter zeichnet sich durch ein im Wesentlichen unproblematisches Benetzungsverhalten, robuste Prozessierbarkeit und vergleichsweise geringe Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeit µ ≈10−3cm2V−1s−1 aus. Dagegen sind das Benetzungsverhalten und die Morphologie des PDI-Derivats stark vom gewählten Lösemittel abhängig. Die Morphologie variiert von körnigen, diskontinuierlichen Filmen mit amorpher Struktur (o-DCB, Tetralin) bis hin zu ebenen, polykristallinen Filmen (Dimethylphthalat, DMP). Entsprechend variiert die erzielte Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeit typischerweise von µ≈10−4cm2V−1s−1 bis µ≈10−1cm2V−1s−1. In allen Fällen zeichnet sich der Nassfilm durch eine ausgeprägte Spreitung aus. Während die Trocknung bei Lösungen aus o-DCB und Tetralin innerhalb weniger Sekunden abgeschlossen ist, dauert dies bei DMP aufgrund des niedrigen Dampfdrucks mehrere Minuten. Die endgültige Lage des Halbleiters kann dabei weder vorhergesagt noch kontrolliert werden, da es während der Trocknung zur willkürlichen Wanderung des Nassfilms relativ zu den bedruckten Transistorstrukturen kommt. Daher waren technologische Maßnahmen erforderlich, um die Lokalisation des Halbleiters reproduzierbar sicherzustellen. Hierzu wurden zwei Ansätze untersucht. Einerseits erfolgte die Lokalisation durch lokal modulierte Oberflächenspannungen mithilfe von strukturierten, selbstorganisierenden Monolagen mit hydrophobem Charakter. Dieser Prozess eignet sich auch zur Lokalisierung des Polymerhalbleiters, falls eine erhöhte Integrationsdichte erforderlich ist. Für das PDI-Derivat hat sich die Lokalisierung durch strukturierte Polymerwannen als Prozess der Wahl herausgestellt. Obwohl die Halbleiter, insbesondere das PDI-Derivat, bereits an Luft eine hohe Umweltstabilität aufweisen, wurde die Verkapselung der Halbleiter untersucht. Eine Verkapselung ist unabhängig von der intrinsischen Stabilität in komplexen, mehrschichtigen Systemen, wie Schaltungen und Anzeigen, erforderlich, um den Halbleiter vor nachfolgenden Prozessschritten zu schützen. Als Material der Wahl hat sich ein fluorierter Photolack basierend auf gegenüber den Halbleitern orthogonalen Lösemitteln erwiesen. Insbesondere der Polymerhalbleiter zeigt durch die Verkapselung eine Stabilisierung der Schwellspannung und eine erhöhte Langzeitstabilität. Durch die hydrophobe Verkapselung bleibt sogar eine mehrstündige Immersion in Wasser ohne Auswirkungen auf das Verhalten der Transistoren. Für beide Halbleitertypen wurden jeweils Prozesse für ein optimales Betriebsverhalten entwickelt. Aufgrund technologischer Einschränkungen und der geforderten ähnlichen Eigenschaften der Transistoren in komplementären Schaltungen ist die Schnittmenge eines für beide Halbleitertypen kompatiblen Prozesses allerdings gering. Die Realisierung komplementärer Grundschaltungen erfolgte daher auf Basis des BGBC-Prozesses mit Abscheidung des PDI-Derivats aus o-DCB. Die hergestellten Inverter, Nand-Gatter und Ringoszillatoren waren funktionsfähig, allerdings stellte sich die Betriebsstabilität als problematisch heraus. Durch elektrische Beanspruchung trat eine signifikante Verschiebung der Schwellspannungen ein, was zur raschen Degradation der Signalpegel führte. Alternativ wurde die unipolare Pseudo-CMOS-Technik auf Basis des Polymerhalbleiters untersucht. Diese Schaltungstechnik stellte sich als wesentlich robuster heraus. Es wurde sogar eine Art Lerneffekt beobachtet, der dazu führt, dass sich das anfänglich nicht-ideale Schaltverhalten von Invertern während des Betriebs durch Angleichung der Schwellspannungen einzelner Transistoren verbessert. Die Integrierbarkeit der entwickelten Transistorprozesse in ein komplexes, mehrschichtiges System wurde durch eine funktionsfähige, elektrophoretische Aktiv-Matrix-Anzeige demonstriert. Die Anzeige hat eine Auflösung von 32×32 Bildpunkten mit Ansteuerung durch organische Transistoren mit Polymerhalbleiter. Die Lokalisation des Halbleiters wurde aufgrund der geringen Transistordimensionen erfolgreich durch selbstorganisierende Monolagen realisiert. Durch die Verkapselung hatten nachfolgende Passivierungs-, Abscheide- und Strukturierungsprozesse keine signifikanten Auswirkungen auf die Transistoren. Die maximale Temperatur bei der Prozessierung betrug 150◦C.Item Open Access Active electronic loads for radiometric calibration(2017) Weissbrodt, Ernst; Kallfass, Ingmar (Prof. Dr.)Although radiometer systems are widely applied in very different fields, they all have one important requirement in common: They require a thorough radiometric calibration. Various conventional calibration references are well established, but their bulkiness, high power consumption, and complexity are limiting the expanding fields of application. Since novel industrial applications such as passive millimeter-wave imaging emerge, the requirements for calibration references have increased drastically. But also in scientific fields like radio astronomy, cosmology or environmental monitoring, modern remote sensing radiometers do not rely only on conventional references anymore. In this work, millimeter-wave monolithic integrated circuits (MMICs) based on metamorphic high electron mobility transistors (mHEMT) were designed to be used as active electronic loads for radiometric calibration. These novel references have not only the outstanding property, that they can be directly integrated on chip-level into the radiometer front-end, but also, that they can exhibit cold as well as hot reference noise temperatures. Since this is achieved without any physical cooling or heating, the power consumption is notably reduced. By monolithic integration of field effect transistor (FET) switches, theses multiple references can internally be routed to the receiver input without any mechanical wear. As a result, laborious external references can be omitted and the repetition rate of the calibration procedure increased, which results in a higher radiometric accuracy and allows a more compact and cost-effective design of modern radiometer systems. This work presents the first radiometric calibration front-end that allows to internally switch between active electronic cold and active electronic hot loads, as well as a passive ambient load. All components are integrated on a single MMIC, and a patent was granted for this innovation. To predict the achievable noise temperatures of active cold loads (ACLs), different simulation approaches were previously published. This work evaluates and adapts these existing approaches to design and manufacture several W-band loads. But the required design-flow was found to be very time-consuming because multiple iterations are necessary to successively design and optimize the input- and output matching networks, and to finally achieve the desired low noise temperature. Therefore, a novel simulation approach is introduced that makes efficiently use of modern optimization algorithms and the very accurate model library of the mHEMT technology and the passive structures. With this novel simulation method, the first active hot loads (AHLs) were designed as well as state-of-the-art ACLs up to 140 GHz. However, the characterization of low-noise one-port devices is particularly challenging, especially at such high frequencies. Hence, a substantial part of this work is to investigate the reliability of different noise measurement setups and the repeatability of noise temperature results. Dedicated setups in W- and D-band are used to characterize all manufactured active loads and some selected results are cross-checked by measuring the same circuits with independently designed measurement systems of other research facilities. The discrepant results are discussed, concluding that high variations in measured one-port noise temperature do not allow to rely on one single measurement setup. At the same time, this thorough investigation and comparison permits to establish an accuracy range within which the results of the manufactured active electronic loads are reliable, whereas other previously published ACLs are typically only measured with one measurement setup.Item Open Access Channel estimation and precoding in closed-loop distributed multi-antenna systems(2015) Wild, Thorsten; Speidel, Joachim (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Today’s wireless cellular systems are limited by inter-cell interference. Coordinated multi-point transmission and reception (CoMP) is a promising approach to cope with this problem. Here, multiple base stations act as a distributed antenna system, exchanging coordination information and potentially user data via backhaul in order to reduce this interference, increasing spectral efficiency and generating a more homogeneous user experience throughout the entire cell, especially at the currently weak cell edges. This dissertation aims at enabling coordinated multi-point systems by dealing with its current realization challenges. Accurate channel knowledge is required both at transmitter and receiver side in order to realize the CoMP gains. Hence, practical channel estimation algorithms are investigated and developed in order to get as accurate channel knowledge as possible with manageable computational complexity under realistic system operation points. Especially the often neglected obtainment of statistical parameter knowledge is included here, which is challenging under dynamic user scheduling conditions. A multi-user multi-cell channel estimator is provided which, even for larger number of coordinated cells, can get receiver performance fairly close to performance with perfect channel knowledge. Furthermore, different downlink precoding and receive combining strategies are compared against each other under imperfect channel knowledge. As the number of coordinated cells - the cluster size - is limited in practice, mobiles at cluster edges suffer from inter-cluster interference. A novel patented precoding and control signaling scheme is introduced in order to deal with the inter-cluster interference.Item Open Access Frequency-agile bandpass delta-sigma modulator for microwave transmitters(2019) Schmidt, Martin; Berroth, Manfred (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)A large part of the power consumption for mobile communications can be allotted to power amplifiers. Class-S power amplifiers promise a very high power efficiency, especially for modern communication standards. An important part of the Class-S power amplifier is the modulator that converts the input signal into a binary pulse sequence. A switching-mode power amplifier can amplify this sequence efficiently. This work covers the implementation of such a modulator as a bandpass delta-sigma modulator. The goal is an output signal which fulfills the requirements of the mobile communication standard UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) in a frequency range which is as large as possible. The thesis starts with the basics of mobile communications, with power amplifiers and with the requirements for the transmit signals for UMTS. Based on a discrete-time lowpass delta-sigma modulator, a continuous-time bandpass delta-sigma modulator is derived. Due to project constraints a bipolar technology is selected for the implementation. Current-mode logic is used for amplifiers and latches in the digital part. Different circuits for a transconductance amplifier are derived and evaluated. A novel, switchable capacitance is presented. With the switchable capacitance a large frequency range of the modulator becomes possible. Two modulators are designed. The first modulator is not tunable and fulfills the UMTS requirements for the downlink channel from the base station to the user equipment at a signal frequency of 2.2 GHz. The second modulator uses the switchable capacitance and covers a frequency range between 1.55 GHz and 2.45 GHz. It fulfills the UMTS requirements within the frequency range between 1.8 GHz and 2.45 GHz.Item Open Access Ultra-low-noise readout circuits for magnetoresistive sensors(2023) Mohamed, Ayman; Anders, Jens (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)The continuous search for highly sensitive, agile and cost-effective sensors for magnetic biosensing applications has been met with high performance magnetoresistive (MR) sensors. While the MR effect has been discovered 150 years ago, there is a growing trend of improving the sensitivity of MR sensors while keeping their noise performance as low as possible. However, such improvements have to be complemented with high performance frontends that can effectively amplify the minute MR sensor's signals while keeping the system's noise floor unaltered. More importantly, the designed frontends have to be equipped with offset compensation peripheral circuits that can efficiently handle the large spread of the base resistance in MR sensors with high MR ratios such as in tunnel magnetoresistive (TMR) sensors. In this thesis, we developed multiple frontend electronics that successfully interfaced MR sensors while, simultaneously, achieving competitive noise performance compared to state-of-the-art (SoA) designs tailored for MR sensor readout. The first variant of chips are specically designed for high performance and high linearity designs thanks to a novel implementation of an ultra-low-noise current bias achieving SoA current noise floor of 2.2 pA/sqrt(Hz) and chopped voltage-mode amplification stages resulting in a total voltage noise floor of 8 nV/sqrt(Hz), including a TMR sensor and a reference resistor with base resistance of 1 kOhm. In order to integrate an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) without substantial additional power and/or area, we show in this work a continuous-time current-mode Sigma-Delta modulator (CT C-SDM) that can directly interface MR sensors without additional amplifiers. Our proposed design does not only show a competitive noise floor of 8.1 pA/sqrt(Hz), but also features a novel DC servo loop (DSL) around the modulator that maximizes the useful dynamic range (DR) of the modulator while successfully rejecting the undesired DC offsets of MR sensors. Both design variants shown in this thesis, pave the way to designing high performance point-of-care (PoC) systems for in-vitro diagnostics while keeping their costs low compared to alternative bulky and expensive systems.Item Open Access Germanium pin photodiodes on silicon and photonic integrated circuits : components for high-speed optical data communications(2011) Klinger, Sandra; Berroth, Manfred (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Data communications based on optical fibres is already well established in our modern long distance communication networks. Due to the high data rates that can be achieved with optical data communications, light is nowadays omnipresent, even at smallest dimensions: high-speed optical communications is not only relied on regarding the communication between chips, but also between components on the chip. Most of the signal processing, however, and especially data storage is still realised in the electrical domain. This means that fast conversion from electrical to optical signals – and vice versa – is necessary at the transmitter and receiver. Hence, this work concentrates on optical links, with emphasis on receiver circuits. To achieve the desired high data rates of 100 Gbit/S and more with the already installed fibre networks, high order modulation and multiplexing schemes are applied. They require optical signal processing on the receiver side, which is provided by photonic integrated circuits (PICs). Such PICs are designed at the Institute of Electrical and Optical Communications Engineering, and they are externally fabricated in the material system SOI (Silicon on Insulator). Because of the high refractive index contrast of Silicon and Silicon Dioxide and the transparency at the telecommunication wavelengths 1310 nm and 1550 nm, SOI is well suited for the aspired compact signal guiding. Furthermore, it is compatible to the Silicon based Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) technology, in which fast mixed-signal integrated circuits can be realised. Among the PICs that are needed for fast integrated optical receivers are coupling elements and simple waveguide structures. The coupling of light from fibre to the chip that contains the PICs must be low-loss and simple. In this work, one-dimensional binary gratings are designed for coupling, and their transmission characteristic is measured. The grating couplers show a measured maximum coupling efficiency of about 37%. The grating couplers are optimised for transverse-electrical polarisation and a wavelength of 1550 nm and 1310 nm. Polarisation and wavelength dependence play a significant role considering coupling elements. With regard to waveguide structures, also single-mode operation as well as stray and bending losses must be considered. Different types of waveguides, like strip and rib waveguides, can be compared with each other. In this work, these aspects are studied theoretically. After the processing by the PICs, the optical signals must be converted. With Silicon as basis, Germanium is a suitable detector material: its absorption coefficient at the telecommunication wavelengths is sufficiently high; additionally, Germanium can be integrated into Silicon. However, the lattice mismatch between both semiconductor materials must be taken into account. In a common project with the Institute for Semiconductor Engineering (IHT), photodetectors with a 3 dB bandwidth of 49 GHz are demonstrated. The according Germanium pin photodiode is realised as a vertical two mesa structure. It is grown on Silicon at the IHT, with an IHT-process using a virtual substrate. Main focus of this work considering the project cooperation lies on simulation and measurement based characterisation as well as on layout-related optimisation. This optimisation mainly refers to the low responsivity of the photodiodes, which is due to the small dimensions of the structure in favour of a high bandwidth. The application of mirror layers and diffraction gratings is theoretically investigated. With such structures, responsivity can theoretically be tripled. Mirrors and gratings are, however, very resonant structures. This work also deals with the development of simulation models. They are needed to simulate the photodiodes together with adjacent electrical circuits. DC and small signal analysis are primarily examined. For further characterisation of the photodiodes, measurements in the time domain are carried out. They show bit rates of at least 25 Gbit/s. The signal that is available after the opto-electrical conversion must be pre-processed, e.g. amplified, before the actual signal processing. Therefore, a simple differential limiting amplifier in a Silicon Germanium bipolar process technology is designed and characterised in this work. Due to the high transit frequency of the process in use, a data rate of 50 Gbit/s is achieved.Item Open Access Efficient modeling and computation methods for robust AMS system design(2018) Gil, Leandro; Radetzki, Martin (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)This dissertation copes with the challenge regarding the development of model based design tools that better support the mixed analog and digital parts design of embedded systems. It focuses on the conception of efficient modeling and simulation methods that adequately support emerging system level design methodologies. Starting with a deep analysis of the design activities, many weak points of today’s system level design tools were captured. After considering the modeling and simulation of power electronic circuits for designing low energy embedded systems, a novel signal model that efficiently captures the dynamic behavior of analog and digital circuits is proposed and utilized for the development of computation methods that enable the fast and accurate system level simulation of AMS systems. In order to support a stepwise system design refinement which is based on the essential system properties, behavior computation methods for linear and nonlinear analog circuits based on the novel signal model are presented and compared regarding the performance, accuracy and stability with existing numerical and analytical methods for circuit simulation. The novel signal model in combination with the method proposed to efficiently cope with the interaction of analog and digital circuits as well as the new method for digital circuit simulation are the key contributions of this dissertation because they allow the concurrent state and event based simulation of analog and digital circuits. Using a synchronous data flow model of computation for scheduling the execution of the analog and digital model parts, very fast AMS system simulations are carried out. As the best behavior abstraction for analog and digital circuits may be selected without the need of changing component interfaces, the implementation, validation and verification of AMS systems take advantage of the novel mixed signal representation. Changes on the modeling abstraction level do not affect the experiment setup. The second part of this work deals with the robust design of AMS systems and its verification. After defining a mixed sensitivity based robustness evaluation index for AMS control systems, a general robust design method leading to optimal controller tuning is presented. To avoid over-conservative AMS system designs, the proposed robust design optimization method considers parametric uncertainty and nonlinear model characteristics. The system properties in the frequency domain needed to evaluate the system robustness during parameter optimization are obtained from the proposed signal model. Further advantages of the presented signal model for the computation of control system performance evaluation indexes in the time domain are also investigated in combination with range arithmetic. A novel approach for capturing parameter correlations in range arithmetic based circuit behavior computation is proposed as a step towards a holistic modeling method for the robust design of AMS systems. The several modeling and computation methods proposed to improve the support of design methodologies and tools for AMS system are validated and evaluated in the course of this dissertation considering many aspects of the modeling, simulation, design and verification of a low power embedded system implementing Adaptive Voltage and Frequency Scaling (AVFS) for energy saving.