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Item Open Access Strukturelle, elektrochemische und spektroskopische Untersuchungen von bioinspirierten Modellkomplexen mit N,S-Liganden(2010) Schnödt, Johannes; Kaim, Wolfgang (Prof. Dr.)Durch die strukturelle Aufklärung der aktiven Zentren von Proteinen und Enzymen hat sich ein interdisziplinäres Forschungsgebiet entwickelt, das versucht entsprechende Modellsysteme als Katalysatoren zu nutzen. Insbesondere Elektronen übertragende Proteine, wie Plastocyanin sowie oxygenierende Enzyme, wie die Peptidylglycin-a-hydroxylierende Monooxygenase, die einen Redoxprozess und einen Sauerstofftransfer verbinden, sind in den Blickpunkt gerückt. In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden die Synthesen und die strukturellen Aufklärungen von bioinspirierten Modellkomplexen mit stickstoff- und schwefelhaltigen Liganden ausführlich beschrieben. Neben den spektroskopischen Eigenschaften dieser Komplexe liegt der Fokus auf den Untersuchungen der elektrochemischen Eigenschaften dieser Redoxsysteme im besonderen Maße im Hinblick auf die Rolle des Schwefels.Item Open Access Gelled bicontinuous microemulsions : a new type of orthogonal self-assembled systems(2013) Laupheimer, Michaela; Stubenrauch, Cosima (Prof. Dr.)In this work a new type of orthogonal self-assembled systems, namely a gelled bicontinuous microemulsion, was investigated with a set of complementary physico-chemical methods. Orthogonal self-assembly means that different structures self-assemble simultaneously in a system and coexist independently. In the chosen model system H2O – n-decane / 12-hydroxyoctadecanoic acid (12-HOA) – tetraethylene glycol monodecyl ether (C10E4) the organogelator 12-HOA forms a network which is surrounded by bicontinuous microemulsion domains. This was proved by comparing characteristic properties and the microstructure of the gelled bicontinuous microemulsion with those of the two ‘base systems’, i.e. the non-gelled bicontinuous microemulsion H2O – n-decane – C10E4 and the binary gel n-decane / 12-HOA. Firstly, phase studies were carried out which showed that the microemulsion phase boundaries are maintained upon gelation, merely shifted by about 6 K to lower temperatures. Likewise, a sol-gel transition occurs in the gelled microemulsion just as in the binary gel. Differential scanning calorimetry and temperature-dependent oscillating shear rheometry measurements revealed that the sol-gel transition temperature is about 20 K lower when a microemulsion, instead of pure n-decane, surrounds the gelator network. This reflects that part of the surface-active 12-HOA molecules adsorb at the water-oil interface instead of forming gelator fibers when a microemulsion is present. Accordingly, studying the linear viscoelastic range and the frequency-dependence of the storage and the loss modulus it was found that the gelator network is somewhat weaker in the gelled bicontinuous microemulsion than in the binary gel, although both systems are strong gels. In the following the focus turned to the microstructure of the gelled bicontinuous microemulsion. To begin with, the bicontinuity of the microemulsion domains in the middle of the one-phase region was verified determining the relative self-diffusion coefficients of water and n-decane with Fourier transform pulsed-gradient spin-echo 1H-NMR measurements. Subsequently, the coexistence of the bicontinuous microemulsion domains and the gelator network in the gelled bicontinuous microemulsion was evidenced by means of small angle neutron scattering. Finally, a visualization of the coexisting microstructures with freeze-fracture transmission electron microscopy complemented the work.Item Open Access Mechanistische Untersuchung zu intermizellaren Wechselwirkungen in lyotropen Flüssigkristallphasen(2015) Schörg, Florian; Gießelmann, Frank (Prof. Dr.)Intermizellare Wechselwirkungen sind für die Bildung lyotroper Flüssigkristallphasen von grundlegender Bedeutung. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Existenz dynamischer Hydrathüllen in mizellaren Systemen gezeigt, die für die Vermittlung intermizellarer Wechselwirkungen über Lösungsmittelschichten hinweg verantwortlich sein können. Als geeignetes Modellsystem wurden hierfür binäre Mischungen des quartären Ammoniumsalzes Cetylethyldimethylammoniumbromid mit Wasser ausgewählt. Durch Messungen mittels dynamischer Lichtstreuung konnten die mizellaren Dimensionen wässriger CEDAB-Lösungen bestimmt werden. Die Untersuchung dynamischer Hydrathüllen erfolgte mittels Absorptionsmessungen im Ferninfrarot-Bereich nach der ATR-Methode. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die Mizellen das sie umgebende Wasserstoffbrückennetzwerk stark beeinflussen und es tatsächlich zur Ausbildung dynamischer Hydrathüllen kommt. Der Übergang in die nematische Phase findet erst statt, wenn das gesamte Lösungsmittel in dynamischen Hydrathüllen gebunden ist und diese zu überlappen beginnen. Anders als bei den für die Entwicklung des Messverfahrens herangezogenen wässrigen Glucose-Lösungen ist im Falle des CEDAB-Systems der Absorptionskoeffizient des Hydratwassers geringer als jener der freien Wassers. Dies kann als eine Schwächung der Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen in den dynamischen Hydrathüllen verstanden werden, die aus der Molekülstruktur resultiert. Die Reichweite des Solvateinflusses auf das Wasserstoffbrückennetzwerk ist jedoch unabhängig davon, ob dieser in einer Stärkung oder einer Schwächung des Wasserstoffbrückennetzwerks resultiert. Durch die Untersuchung wässriger Lösungen des nichtionischen Zuckertensids C8Gluco konnte gezeigt werden, dass in geeigneten lyotropen Systemen auch eine Stärkung der Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen in den dynamischen Hydrathüllen möglich ist. Diese fiel jedoch nicht so deutlich aus wie im Falle des Glucose-Systems, was wiederum auf die Struktur der Moleküle und die Mizellbildung zurückzuführen ist. So stehen im Falle des C8Gluco-Systems für jedes Solvatmolekül weniger als halb so viele Hydroxygruppen für die Bildung von Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen mit dem Lösungsmittel zur Verfügung. Eines der eindrucksvollsten Beispiele für die Bedeutung intermizellarer Wechselwirkungen ist die chirale Induktion in lyotropen Flüssigkristallphasen, die üblicherweise durch das Hinzufügen chiraler Moleküle als Dotierstoff hervorgerufen werden kann. In dieser Arbeit wurden erstmals helikale Nanopartikel als Dotierstoffe eingesetzt, die um ein Vielfaches größer waren als die Mizellen der lyotropen Wirtsphase. Die Nano-Helices wurden in lyotrop-nematischen Phasen dispergiert, eine einheitliche Probenorientierung konnte durch das Anlegen eines externen Magnetfelds erreicht werden. Durch polarisationsmikroskopische Untersuchungen konnte in den untersuchten Systemen die Bildung helikaler Überstrukturen gezeigt werden. Deren Ganghöhen liegen im Bereich weniger Millimeter, was unter Berücksichtigung der geringen Nanopartikelkonzentrationen in den Lösungen für ein beeindruckendes chirales Induktionsvermögen spricht. Die etablierten Mechanismen der chiralen Induktion in lyotropen Systemen können aufgrund der Größenverhältnisse zwischen den Nanopartikeln und den um zwei bis drei Größenordnungen kleineren Mizellen nicht zur Anwendung gebracht werden. Um die beobachteten Chiralitätseffekte zu erklären wurde deshalb auf ein von Ferrarini und Nordio entwickeltes Modell für die chirale Induktion in thermotropen Flüssigkristallen zurückgegriffen. Dieses beruht auf einem von der chiral verzerrten Oberfläche des Dotierstoffs auf den lokalen Direktor ausgeübten Drehmoment, das innerhalb der Wirtsphase aufgrund von deren Elastizität weitergegeben werden kann. Insgesamt liefert die vorliegende Arbeit wichtige Erkenntnisse für das Verständnis intermizellarer Wechselwirkungen in lyotropen Systemen. Mit der ATR-Ferninfrarot-Spektroskopie wird erstmals eine neue Methode für die Untersuchung der Hydratation von Mizellen präsentiert, die bei der weiteren mechanistischen Aufklärung des intermizellaren Informationstransports eine wichtige Rolle spielen könnte. Die verwendeten TiO2-Nano-Helices zeigen hingegen ein bemerkenswertes chirales Induktionsvermögen bei der Verwendung als Dotierstoffe in lyotropen Flüssigkristallphasen und erzeugen in orientierten Proben helikale Überstrukturen mit sehr großen Ganghöhen. Somit liefert diese Arbeit wichtige Grundlagen für weitere Untersuchungen, die dabei helfen können, die Mechanismen der Bildung lyotroper Flüssigkristallphasen und der chiralen Induktion in diesen besser zu verstehen.Item Open Access Precipitation of nitrides in iron-based binary and ternary alloys; influence of defects and transformation-misfit stresses(2015) Akhlaghi, Maryam; Mittemeijer, Eric Jan (Prof. Dr. Ir.)The initial microstructure of the unnitrided specimen has a significant influence on the nitriding response of binary Fe-Me (Me: Mo or Al) alloys specimens. This effect was not investigated until now for the case of nitrided ternary Fe-Me1-Me2 alloys, the role of the initial microstructure was studied upon nitriding Fe-4.1 at.% Cr-7.9 at.% Al specimens. To this end, the recrystallized and cold-rolled specimens were nitrided at low nitriding temperature of 400 °C. Upon precipitation of misfitting coherent nitrides during nitriding of thin-foils of binary Fe-Me (Me: Cr and V) alloys, a hydrostatic tensile lattice-stain component results from the elastic accommodation of volume misfit of nitrides and ferrite matrix. The change of the ferrite-matrix lattice parameter can be traced upon precipitation of the nitrides by X-ray diffraction measurements. The theory originally developed for the case of imperfections (by Eshelby) in solids can be applied for quantitatively describing the lattice-parameter changes of the matrix, the nitrides and the aggregate (matrix+ nitrides) as function of volume fraction and type of nitrides.Item Open Access Untersuchungen der spektroskopischen, elektrochemischen und strukturellen Eigenschaften von Übergangsmetallkomplexen mit stickstoffreichen Liganden(2015) Löw, Isabell; Kaim, Wolfgang (Prof. Dr.)Das Interesse an 3,6-disubstitutiierten Derivaten von 1,2,4,5-Tetrazinliganden in der Koordinationschemie beruht auf strukturellen und elektronischen Besonderheiten. Durch die Verwendung dieser stickstoffreichen Liganden wird eine große Vielfalt in der Synthese von stabilen Chelatkomplexen als Einkern und Zweikernkomplexen mit Übergangsmetallen ermöglicht. Tetrazinliganden stellen das elektronenärmste aromatische System in der klassischen H, C, N, O, S-Chemie dar. Dies führt zu einem ausgeprägten π-Akzeptor Verhalten mit der Ausbildung eines energetisch sehr tiefliegenden π* Molekülorbitals, was die Koordination an Übergangsmetalle elektrochemisch wie auch spektroskopisch sehr interessant macht. Die geringe Basizität des Tetrazinings kann mit Hilfe der 3,6-Derivatisierung abgefangen werden. Die leichte Reduzierbarkeit (E > 1.3 V vs. Fc/Fc+) und die Lokalisation des resultierenden Spins auf den vier Tetrazinstickstoffatomen, die durch eine Knotenebene in der 3,6-Position ermöglicht wird, machen diese Liganden zusätzlich interessant. In der vorzulegenden Arbeit werden sowohl symmetrisch als auch asymmetrisch substituierte Liganden mit einer Reihe von Übergangsmetallen zu Einkern bzw. Zweikernkomplexen koordiniert und jeweils untereinander so wie auch mit ähnlichen, bereits literaturbekannten Komplexen verglichen. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit wurde die [Re(CO)5Cl] Einheit wegen ihrer elektrochemischen und spektroskopischen Eigenschaften, aber auch im Hinblick auf eine mögliche Katalyse der Reduktion von CO2 zu CO verwendet. Weiterhin wurden Rutheniumfragmente mit akzeptierenden Bipyridin Coliganden sowie mit donativen Acetylacetonat Coliganden wegen ihrer hohen Stabilität und der variablen und vielfältigen Redoxchemie verwendet. Auch ein gemischtvalenter Komplex der Form [Ru(acac)2((NMe)2 Tz)(Ru(bpy)2)] konnte synthetisiert und im Hinblick auf sein spezielles Redoxverhalten untersucht werden. Als ein weiterer stickstoffreicher Ligand wurde Bis[N-(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)imino]acenaphten (iPr-BIAN) Ligand in seiner Koordination mit [Cu(PPh3)]+ und den Metallcarbonylfragmenten [Re(CO)3Cl(iPr BIAN)] und [M(CO)3(iPr BIAN)] (M= Mo, W, Cr) synthetisiert und untersucht. Die Verwendung dieses α-Diiminliganden ist im Hinblick auf den Einsatz als Coligand in vielen Bereichen der Katalyse wie zum Beispiel der C C Kreuzkupplung, der homogenen Hydrierung und der Polymerisation von Olefinen interessant. Aus elektronischer Sicht war die postulierte Möglichkeit der Aufnahmefähigkeit von gleich vier Elektronen auch in Komplexen mit Übergangsmetallen zu überprüfen. Der durch die vier Isopropylgruppen verursachte höhere Platzanspruch des Liganden konnte eindrucksvoll an einer auf drei erniedrigten Koordinationszahl in dem Komplex [Cu(PPh3)(iPr BIAN)] demonstriert werden. Alle genannten Komplexe wurden mit Hilfe von 1H NMR, CHN Analyse und Massenspektrometrie charakterisiert und auf Reinheit geprüft, sowie mittels Cyclovoltammetrie und Spektroelektrochemie (UV/Vis/NIR, IR und ESR) hinsichtlich ihres Redoxverhaltens untersucht. Viele Verbindungen konnten kristallographisch charakterisiert werden.Item Open Access Enzymatic asymmetric dihydroxylation of alkenes(2016) Gally, Christine; Hauer, Bernhard (Prof. Dr.)The introduction of chirality into C=C double bonds is of special interest in organic synthesis. In particular, the catalytic asymmetric dihydroxylation (AD) of alkenes has attracted considerable attention due to the facile transformation of the chiral diol products into valuable derivatives. By chemical means, the metal-catalyzed AD of olefins provides both stereo- and regiospecific cis-diol moieties. Next to their toxicity, however, these metal catalysts can also lead to byproduct formation as a result of oxidative fission. In nature, Rieske non-heme iron oxygenases (ROs) represent promising biocatalysts for this reaction since they are the only enzymes known to catalyze the stereoselective formation of vicinal cis-diols in one step. ROs are key enzymes in the degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons and can target a wide variety of different arenes. Despite their broad substrate scope, limited data is available for the conversion of unnatural substrates by this class of enzymes. To explore their potential for alkene oxidation, three ROs were tested for the oxyfunctionalization of a set of structurally diverse olefins including linear and cyclic arene-substituted alkenes, cycloalkenes as well as several terpenes. Naphthalene- (NDO), benzene- (BDO) and cumene dioxygenases (CDO) from different Pseudomonas strains where selected as they are amongst the RO enzymes that have already been reported to catalyze the oxidation of a small number of olefins. The majority of compounds from the selected substrate panel could be converted by NDO, BDO or CDO and products were either isolated and identified by NMR analysis or using the authentic standards. Dependent on the substrate, allylic monohydroxylation was found in addition to the corresponding diol products, a reaction which is chemically still most reliably achieved by the use of SeO2 in stoichiometric amounts. However, having been evolved for the dihydroxylation of aromatic compounds, wild type ROs displayed low conversions (< 50%) and modest stereoselectivities (≤ 80% ee/de) for several of the tested olefins. To overcome these limitations, changes in the active site topology of RO catalysts were introduced. A single targeted point mutation that was identified based on sequence and structural comparisons with other members of the RO family proved to be sufficient to generate BDO and CDO variants displaying remarkable changes in regio- and stereoselectivity for various substrates. In particular biotransformations with CDO M232A gave excellent stereoselectivities (≥ 95% ee/de) and good activities (> 90%) also for linear alkenes, which have been reported to be challenging substrates for RO-catalyzed oxyfunctionalizations. Site-saturation mutagenesis at position 232 in CDO revealed a correlation between the steric demand of the amino acid side chain and its influence on regio- and/ or stereoselectivities for styrene and indene. While the wild type enzyme almost exclusively catalyzed the dihydroxylation of the aromatic ring, the regioselectivity was shifted with decreasing side chain size to the terminal vinyl group of styrene, yielding up to 96% of the alkene-1,2-diol. For cis-1,2-indandiol formation, enantiocomplementary enzymes could be generated, a fact further highlighting the importance of position 232 for the engineering of ROs. Moreover, site-saturation mutagenesis of additional residues in the substrate binding pocket of CDO (F278, I288, I336 and F378) identified further positions having an influence on selectivity and product formation for alkene oxidation. To proof the applicability of ROs for organic synthesis, semi-preparative scale biotransformations (70 mg) of selected substrates were performed with CDO M232A. Without further optimization of the reaction set-up, products were successfully isolated in > 30% yield. In addition, up-scaling of (R)-limonene hydroxylation to 4 L in a bioreactor with growing cells gave final isolated product titers of 0.4 g L-1 even though substrate volatility and product toxicity diminished the yield. In conclusion, these examples demonstrated that a single point mutation was sufficient to transform CDO wild type into an efficient catalyst, furthermore constituting the first example of the rational engineering of CDO and BDO enzymes for the oxyfunctionalization of a broad range of alkenes.Item Open Access Eignung von metallorganischen Gerüstverbindungen als stationäre Phase in der Hochleistungsflüssigchromatographie (HPLC)(2017) Lieder, Christian; Klemm, Elias (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Anwendung von metallorganischen Gerüstverbindungen als stationäre Phase in der HPLC, Vergleich mit klassischen Silika-Materialien. Synthese der metallorganischen Gerüstverbindungen, Modifizierung. Befüllung chromatographischer Säulen und Gegenüberstellung der Füllmethoden. Methodenentwicklung, Einflüsse auf chromatographische Ergebnisse. Chirale Erkennung, Untersuchung der Wechselwirkungen. Theoretisch chemische Berechnungen der Wechselwirkungen.Item Open Access Formation of lath martensite(2015) Löwy, Sarah; Mittemeijer, Eric Jan (Prof. Dr. Ir.)In this thesis the formation of different lath martensites was investigated upon cooling, particularly with regard to the mechanisms contributing to the transformation process. Upon very slow cooling of different Fe-Ni alloys and a maraging steel, all forming lath martensite, a discontinuous transformation behaviour was observed. This modulation of the transformation rate is ascribed to the interplay of chemical driving force, developing strain energy and its relaxation upon slow cooling. It is proposed that the modulation is caused by simultaneous formation of blocks in different martensite packages. Additionally, the influence of the Ni content on the transformation behaviour is presented as well as the influence of an externally applied force.Item Open Access Polymer electrolyte membrane degradation and mobility in fuel cells : a solid-state NMR investigation(2010) Ghassemzadeh Khoshkroodi, Lida; Müller, Klaus (Prof. Dr.)It is generally believed that fuel cells will play an important role in energy technology already in the near future. Operating polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) at temperatures higher than 100 °C and reduced humidity is anticipated to avoid most of the shortcomings associated with the low-temperature fuel cell operation, such as CO poisoning of the electrode catalysts, slow electrode kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction and expensive water/thermal management. To date, the operation temperature of PEMFCs is limited to about 90 °C, and this limit is given by the properties of the perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) ionomer, Nafion, which is commonly used as a separator material. Apart from the proton conductivity decay at higher temperature and lower humidification, it is also the limited stability of Nafion preventing it from long term operation. Despite the high stability of the PTFE backbone in Nafion, severe deterioration is observed during fuel cell operation. Formation of pinholes and cracks, thinning of the membranes and decrease of ion exchange capacity were reported. The fluorine release indicated that the bond cleavage process takes place under fuel cell operating conditions. Bond cleavage was initially believed to proceed from radical attacks to the carboxyl groups terminating the PTFE backbone of Nafion, and it was claimed to be controlled by the endcapping of the polymer backbone with a CF3 group. However, the release of fluoride was reported even after endcapping of the materials. The observations proved that bond cleavage limits the stability of PFSA membranes, but the elementary reactions and consequences on the membrane microstructure are not fully understood yet. In this work, it has been tried to get new insights into the problems of long term stability of polymer electrolytes for low temperature fuel cells. The aim was to identify the changes in the chemical structure of the membrane after operating in a fuel cell. This understanding is essential for extending the operation limit of PFSA-type membranes by either improving the membrane properties or adjusting the conditions within the running fuel cell. In the present work, therefore the changes taking place in PFSA membranes after applying in-situ and ex-situ aging protocols have been investigated. While the in-situ experiments provide a global picture, the analysis of membranes after ex-situ tests, with various conditions, allows the separation of different types of reactions. In previous studies the degradation changes were mainly monitored by analyzing the released water of the fuel cell or by using the liquid ionomers. In this work with the help of solid-state NMR spectroscopy, the direct study of the chemical structure and dynamics of the polymer membranes before and after the degradation tests became possible. The structural changes in different parts of the PFSA membranes were first inspected after an in-situ aging test. These examined membranes (Nafion and Hyflon Ion) differed by the length of the side chains. The comparison of the solid-state 13C and 19F NMR data of polymers before and after the in-situ degradation test showed that changes can take place not only in the main chain of the polymer, but also within the polymer side chains, as reflected by changes of NMR signals associated with CFSO3, CF3, OCF2 and CF groups. The degree of degradation is found to decrease with increasing membrane thickness while for a given thickness the short side chain polymer, Hyflon Ion, appears to degrade less than Nafion. In order to understand the reason for these observations, a new ex-situ method has been developed to mimic the degradation of polymer electrolyte membranes in PEM fuel cells (caused by the cross-leakage of H2 and O2). In this ex-situ setup, it was possible to expose membranes to flows of different gases with controlled temperature and humidity. H+-form Nafion films with and without electrode layer (Pt) have been treated in the presence of different gases in order to simulate the anode and cathode side of a PEMFC. The changes of the chemical structure occurring during the degradation tests were primarily examined by solid-state 19F NMR spectroscopy. For completion, liquid-state NMR studies and ion exchange capacity measurements were performed. It was found that degradation occurs only when both H2 and O2 are present (condition of gas cross-leakage), and when the membrane is coated with Pt catalyst. The chemical degradation rate is found to be highest for H2-rich mixtures of H2 and O2, which corresponds to the conditions at the anode under OCV. It is further shown that side chain disintegration is very important for chemical degradation, although backbone decomposition also might take place. The fact that in-situ degradation effects were reproduced by the present ex-situ experiments, suggest that membrane degradation in a running fuel cell is mainly the consequence of chemical aging. Detecting the degradation for the membranes coated with Pt in the presence of both gases, H2 and O2, points toward the importance of radicals in the degradation process, which in a running fuel cell (in-situ conditions) may only form in the presence of some gas cross-over, allowing H2 and O2 to react at the Pt catalyst of the anode or cathode structure. Since the gas cross-over increases for the thinner Nafion membrane, these results indirectly explain the higher degradation rate of thin Nafion in the in-situ degradation test. The chemical degradation and stability of PFSA membranes against radical attacks was also investigated in a Fenton ex-situ degradation test. Liquid and solid-state NMR as well as ATR-FTIR spectroscopy were applied to the samples before and after the Fenton reaction. A Comparison of the degradation rate of Nafion and Hyflon Ion in the ex-situ Fenton test again proved that the Hyflon Ion membrane is more stable than Nafion. Comparing the degradation rate of the side chain in these two polymers showed that the stability of Hyflon Ion is mainly due to the shortening of the side chain in this polymer. Hence, the absence of one ether group and the tertiary carbon reduces the degradation rate of the side chain and makes this polymer less sensitive to the radical attacks than Nafion. For the performance of a membrane not only the chemical structure but also the polymer dynamics is important. Therefore the molecular mobility of the ionomer was investigated by variable temperature 19F NMR lineshape, T1 and T1ρ relaxation experiments. The decrease of the temperature dependent linewidth was explained by the reduction of static disorder in the Nafion membrane. From the relaxation data there was evidence for structural annealing, which is independent of the chemical degradation. Chemical degradation is considered to reduce the chain flexibility (i.e. the motional amplitudes), which may be explained by chain cross-linking and condensation reaction for the side chains. To overcome the problem of Nafion's low conductivity at temperatures above 100 °C and low relative humidity, also composite membranes were introduced. These membranes consist of Nafion modified by inorganic oxide additives. It has been reported that under dry conditions, these membranes show enhanced water uptake and water diffusion when compared with filler-free Nafion. In order to understand the reason for the better performance of these polymers, the impact of the oxide particles on the polymer dynamics has been investigated. [Nafion/(SiO2)x] composite membranes in the dry and wet state with x ranging from 0 to 15 w/w% were investigated by variable temperature solid-state 19F NMR spectroscopy. 19F T1 and T1ρ relaxation times and NMR lineshapes were analyzed in order to get details about the polymer mobility. It is concluded that solid oxide SiO2 particles play an important role in stabilizing the chemical structure and morphology of the polymer especially in the dry state. The filler particles lead to higher mobility of polymer chains, if the filler content has an optimized value of about 9 w/w%. The results were further supported by comparing the sideband intensity as well as the linewidth in 19F NMR and recording the 19F{1H} CP/MAS NMR spectra. Furthermore, it has been shown that the structure of composite membranes is more stable after dehydration and possible condensation reactions are less likely in these membranes. The presence of filler particles decrease the chance for morphology changes and close packing of polymer chains in the dry state. Also the decrease of ionic exchange capacity after dehydration is less severe for the composite membrane as compared to filler-free Nafion. In conclusion, the present results provide a complete picture of solid membrane before and after degradation and of possible mechanisms for radical formation and radical attacks to the polymer. In addition, it is shown which changes can occur in the morphology of polymer chains in low humidification and high temperature. Some general suggestions for the better performance of polymer electrolyte membrane are therefore: For improving the performance of polymer electrode membrane, the sources for the radical formation in the fuel cell should be controlled. This can be possible to some extend by avoiding the use of iron end plates in the fuel cells. Also the chance for the gas crossover through the membrane should be decreased. Thicker membranes show less gas cross-over. By taking into account the higher resistivity of thicker membranes, an optimized membrane thickness should be selected. Hydrocarbon sulfonated polyetherketones possess narrower hydrophilic channels which significantly reduce electroosmotic drag, water permeation as well as gas cross-over. Also the short side chain perfluorinated polymer, Hyflon Ion, with lower electroosmotic drag of water should possess a reduced gas cross-over though the membrane. The more efficient way for decreasing degradation is to use membranes which are stable against radical attacks. At this point the perfluorinated polymers are still the best available membranes. Endcapping of the backbone in these polymers and decreasing the concentration of reactive end groups like COOH during the polymer manufacturing process can significantly decrease degradation. To minimize degradation of the side chains in perfluorinated polymers, short side chain polymers are suggested because of less reactive groups for the radical attacks and higher concentration of acidic groups. When higher operation temperatures are required, composite Nafion membranes might be used. The higher stability of these membranes makes them advantageous for operating at evaluated temperatures and low relative humidity. The novel results from the present work lead to a better understanding of membrane degradation, which still represents a serious problem for fuel cells under operation conditions, and provide important indications for future developments of membranes with improved performance for alternative energy conversion devices.Item Open Access Ring opening of decalin on iridium- and platinum-containing zeolite catalysts of the FAU-, MTW- and MWW-type(2011) Rabl, Sandra; Weitkamp, Jens (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Polycyclic aromatics have an even higher tendency for the formation of particulates than one-ring aromatics, and they bring about various additional undesirable properties, such as poor ignition characteristics and cetane numbers, an increased propensity for soot formation and unfavorable cold-flow properties. For these reasons, the content of polycyclic aromatics in diesel fuels is limited by legislation to 8 wt.-%. Certain refinery streams, such as light cycle oil (LCO) from the FCC unit are rich in these undesired compounds and can be blended into diesel fuels only to a limited extent. A most attractive way for upgrading these refinery streams is the selective ring opening of polycyclic aromatics into alkanes, without degradation of the carbon number. The aim of this work was to identify key factors which a high-performance catalyst should have to achieve high yields of open-chain decanes in the hydroconversion of cis-decalin. In order to reach this goal, the kind of the noble metal, the metal loading and the concentration and strength of the Brønsted acid sites in the zeolite catalysts were varied. For a safe identification of the desired open-chain decanes, n-decane was isomerized in separate experiments, and the mixture of iso-decanes thereby generated was co-injected with the liquid products from decalin hydroconversion. All results suggested that a balance between the metal content and the concentration and strength of Brønsted acid sites was important and necessary. The catalysts could be divided into three categories: catalysts on which only hydrogenolysis on the metal took place; bifunctional catalysts on which the metal had only a dehydrogenation / hydrogenation function and the acid sites are responsible for the conversion of decalin and trifunctional catalysts on which mainly hydrogenolysis on the metal took place but also hints of a superimposition of bifunctional catalysis were visible. On nearly all catalysts open-chain decanes were obtained, but the best catalysts belonged to the group of trifunctional catalysts.