Universität Stuttgart
Permanent URI for this communityhttps://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/handle/11682/1
Browse
16 results
Search Results
Item Open Access Multistep reactions of molten nitrate salts and gas atmospheres(2024) Steinbrecher, Julian; Thess, André (Prof. Dr.)Dissertation zur Untersuchung der Stabilität von Nitratsalzschmelzen unter verschiedenen atmosphärischen Bedingungen und Temperaturen.Item Open Access CO2-Abtrennung aus Synthesegasen mit Hydrotalciten unter Hochtemperatur-Hochdruckbedingungen(2017) Bublinski, Martin; Seifert, Helmut (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Membranverfahren trennen Gasgemische kontinuierlich, selektiv und energieeffizient. Damit stellt dieses Trennverfahren eine interessante Alternative zu herkömmlichen, energieintensiven Gasreinigungsverfahren mittels Wäschern dar. Allerdings steigen insbesondere für Hochtempera-turanwendungen die material- und prozesstechnischen Anforderungen an das Membransystem, wodurch die Materialauswahl stark eingegrenzt wird. Bisher existiert im kommerziellen Maßstab noch kein hochtemperaturtaugliches, kontinuierliches Abscheideverfahren für die selektive Abscheidung von CO2 aus Synthesegas. Der Einsatz von Membranen aus Hydrotalcit stellt für die CO2-Abscheidung aus vorgereinigten Synthesegasen einen vielversprechenden Lösungsansatz dar. In dieser Arbeit wird die systematische Entwicklung von anorganischen mehrschichtigen Hydrotalcit-Membranen vorgestellt, mit denen CO2 selektiv aus dem Gasstrom unter Hochtemperatur- und Hochdruckbedingungen (T > 350 °C, p ≤ 80 bar) abgeschiedenen werden kann. Die Prozesse CO2-Sorption bzw. CO2-Desorption auf der Membranoberfläche sowie die Diffusionseigenschaf-ten der Membran wurden dabei getrennt voneinander untersucht. Zuerst wurden an reinen und mit Kaliumcarbonat dotierten Hydrotalciten mit einem Sorptions-/Druckreaktor CO2-Sorptionsgleichgewichtsdaten im Temperatur- und Druckbereich zwischen 200-500 °C bzw. 20-80 bar aufgenommen. Dabei wurden maximale CO2-Kapazitäten von 1,2 mol/kg für reines Hydrotalcit und 2,0 mol/kg für dotiertes Hydrotalcit mit trockenem, bzw. 1,95 mol/kg für reines Hydrotalcit und 5,70 mol/kg für K-dotiertes Hydrotalcit mit feuchtem Gas ermittelt. Die Desorptionseigenschaften wurden mittels zyklischen CO2-Sorptionsexperimenten bestimmt. Dabei stellte sich sowohl für reines als auch für K-dotiertes Hydrotalcit für trockenes und feuchtes Gas eine konstante Arbeitskapazität nach mehreren Sorptionszyklen auf dem Niveau von zwei Drittel der ursprünglichen CO2-Sorptionskapazität ein. Die Hydrotalcit-Membransynthese erfolgte auf Al2O3-Substraten mit einem Harnstoff-Hydrolyse-Verfahren. Dadurch konnte ein Wachstum der Hydrotalcit-Kristalle direkt auf der Substratoberfläche erreicht werden und eine homogene Hydrotalcit-Membran synthetisiert werden. Durch eine weitere Hydrotalcit-Schicht gelang es, die Defekte der Membran weiter zu verringern. Die CO2-Permeanzen wurden mit einem Hochtemperatur-Membranmodul bei 200 °C auf 3,03·10-7 mol/(m2·s·Pa) und 500 °C auf 1,06·10-6 mol/(m2·s·Pa) bestimmt. Neben der Knudsen-Diffusion wurde die Lösungs-Diffusion von CO2 als weiterer Transportmechanismus durch die Hydrotalcit-Membran identifiziert. Die idealen CO2-Selektivitäten bezüglich N2, H2 und CO lagen demnach meist leicht über den Knudsen-Selektivitäten. Gegenüber N2 konnte bei Tempera-turen von 350 °C eine Selektivität von 1,31 ermittelt und folglich eine partielle CO2-selektive Trennung mit den synthetisierten Hydrotalcit-Membranen erzielt werden.Item Open Access Einfluss der Reaktionskinetik und Mischung auf die Selektivität in reaktiven Blasenströmungen(2022) Gast, Sebastian; Nieken, Ulrich (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)In dieser Arbeit wird das bisher noch unzureichend erforschte Wechselspiel zwischen Fluiddynamik, Stoffübergang und chemischer Reaktion in Blasenströmungen untersucht. Um die gegenseitigen Abhängigkeiten dieser Prozesse zu verstehen, müssen diese zuerst getrennt voneinander ohne die Beeinflussung der anderen Prozesse betrachtet werden. Um die Reaktionskinetik ohne Einfluss des Stofftransportes zu bestimmen, wurde ein neuer Kinetikreaktor entwickelt. Hierbei wird der Stoffübergang von der Gas- in die Flüssigphase räumlich von der Reaktion getrennt. Diese räumliche Entkopplung erlaubt die Untersuchung der Reaktionskinetik in homogener flüssiger Phase ohne jegliche Stofftransportlimitierung. Als Modellsystem wurde die Kinetik der unkatalysierten Toluoloxidation ermittelt und parametriert. Das selektive Reaktionsnetzwerk der Toluoloxidation, bestehend aus konkurrierenden Folge- und Parallelreaktionen bietet die notwendigen Voraussetzungen für die Studie der zuvor genannten Abhängigkeiten der Fluiddynamik, Stoffübergang und chemischer Reaktion in Blasenströmungen. Die ermittelte Reaktionskinetik erwies sich in numerischen Simulationen als zu langsam für die Interaktion mit der Blasenumströmung. Dies konnte experimentell in einer transparenten Hochdruckblasensäule technischer Größe bei industriellen Bedingungen von 30 bar und 190°C bestätigt werden. In weiterführenden Simulationen wurde die um einen Faktor KF beschleunigte Reaktionskinetik verwendet, um den Einfluss der nicht idealen Vermischung im Nachlauf einer Blase auf die Reaktion und das erzeugte Produktspektrum zu untersuchen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass nur Reaktionen durch die Blasenströmung beeinflusst werden, welche in einem Zeitbereich von 0.1 < Da_1 < 1000, dem sogenannten mischungsmaskierten Bereich, ablaufen. Langsamere oder schnellere Reaktionen laufen in der Bulkphase beziehungsweise ausschließlich an der Blasenoberfläche ab und werden nicht durch die unvollständige Vermischung im Nachlauf der Blase beeinflusst. Der größte Einfluss auf den Verlauf der Reaktion wird dabei von einer durch den stationären Blasenwirbel erzeugte Transportbarriere verursacht. Diese verhindert den Abtransport der erzeugten Produkte. Bei einem gleichzeitig konstanten Zustrom an Edukt werden Folgereaktionen gefördert. Dies führt zu einer starken Veränderung des Produktspektrums gegenüber des Reaktionsablaufes bei ideal vermischten Bedingungen. Darüber hinaus wurde ein Compartment Modell aufgestellt, um den Einfluss der nicht ideal vermischten Bedingungen einer Blasenumströmung auf die ablaufende Reaktion zu beschreiben. Das Compartment Modell basiert auf einem modifizierten Oberflächenerneuerungsmodell zur Darstellung der Abläufe an der Blasenoberfläche und einem Verweilzeitmodell zur Abbildung der unvollständigen Vermischung im Nachlauf der Blase. Es ist in der Lage, die identifizierte Abhängigkeit der Reaktion von Fluiddynamik und Stoffübergangs und -transport bei deutlich reduziertem Rechenaufwand zu reproduzieren und ist damit für den Einsatz in großskaligen Simulationen wie Euler-Euler und Euler-Lagrange geeignet.Item Open Access Modeling of porous polymer membrane formation(2017) Hopp-Hirschler, Manuel; Nieken, Ulrich (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Porous polymer membranes are used in several separation processes, e.g. in dialysis or in water purification. The morphology of the membrane affects the quality of separation, e.g. selectivity, as well as the mechanical stability of the membrane. To control the morphology of the membrane during the preparation process we first need to understand the mechanism that leads to different pore structures. It is desirable to use a numerical model to predict the pore type and detailed structure. Wet-casting is a very common preparation process for porous polymer membranes where a liquid precipitation agent is used. Herein, a polymer solution and a coagulation bath is brought into contact. After contact the polymer solution is driven into a miscibility gap and starts to phase separate into a polymer lean and a polymer rich phase. Starting from the contact area between polymer solution and coagulation bath a pore structure grows where the polymer rich phase leads to the pore matrix. Although the process is used frequently in the last decades, its mechanism is still not fully understood. Therefore, the motivation in this thesis is to bridge experimental observations from membrane science to theoretical physics where concepts exist to understand the formation of pore structures in porous polymer membranes.Item Open Access Extended theoretical and experimental studies of the calcium looping process for carbon dioxide capture(2017) Duelli, Glykeria; Scheffknecht, Günter (Univ.-Prof. Dr. techn.)The world is at a critical juncture in its efforts to combat climate change. Since the first Conference of the Parties (COP) in 1995, greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions have risen by more than one-quarter and the atmospheric concentration of these gases has increased steadily to 435 parts per million carbon-dioxide equivalent (ppm CO2-eq) in 2012 [1]. The international commitment to keep the increase in long-term average temperatures below two degrees Centigrade, compared to pre-industrial levels, requires substantial and sustained reductions in global emissions. Given the dominant role that fossil fuels continue to play in primary energy consumption followed by the continuously increasing global energy demand, the deployment of carbon capture and storage technologies (CCS) is imperative [1]. The individual component technologies required for CO2 capture, transport and storage are generally well-understood and, in some cases, technologically mature. The largest challenge for CCS deployment is the integration of component technologies into large-scale (demonstration) projects. In this direction simulation and modeling works allow a cost effective investigation of the feasibility and the applicability of the prototype technology as well as its development and optimization. In addition, complete process approach allows determination of the impact that integration of the CO2 capture plant imposes on the power plant. However, a reliable assessment of the process performance requires the process models to be validated with experimental data. In this work, one of the major CCS technologies, the calcium looping process is realized, investigated and evaluated at a 10 kWth dual fluidized bed (DFB) continuously operating facility at the University of Stuttgart. The performance of the process in terms of CO2 capture in the carbonator and sorbent calcination in the regenerator is studied. Natural limestones were used. The process was realised in presence of water vapor in both carbonator and regenerator reactor. The calcination took place in high CO2 concentration representative of the oxy-fuel combustion in the regenerator. Synthetic flue gas was used while both reactors were electrically heated with supplementary CH4 combustion in the regenerator when necessary. The Ca flow circulating between the reactors as well as the Ca mass in the reactors were varied. The regenerator and the carbonator temperatures were varied. The sorbent CO2 capture ability was studied through thermogravimetric analysis of the samples taken during experimentation. Attrition phenomena were studied by measuring the particle size distribution and weighting the material collected from the cyclones of the DFB facility. The experimentation was successfully performed with reliable data and the trends observed are in good agreement with previous works. It was shown that CO2 capture efficiencies of more than 90% can be achieved at conditions closer to the industrial ones. The CO2 capture efficiency was improving by increasing bed inventory and looping ratio. The sorbent calcination degree is a decreasing function of the carbonate content of the incoming solid flow and an increasing function of the particle residence time and reactor temperature. In presence of water vapor, CO2 capture efficiencies of more than 90% and complete sorbent calcination were achieved for looping ratios of around 8. The temperatures were for the regenerator not more than 1193K and for the carbonator around 903K. The sorbent carbonation conversion was retained at about 0.2 molCaCO3/molCaO, constant for many hours of operation. The material loss was measured to be around 4.5%wt/h based on the total system inventory while the mean particle size of the sorbent decreased to around 400 µm and remained constant for many hours of operation. Simplified semi-empirical models were successfully implemented in the experimental results. Kinetic and attrition constants were calculated and a good agreement between the predicted and the actual data is shown. Design parameter of active space time was found to be 30s for the carbonator and 0.11h for the regenerator with efficiencies of more than 90% in both reactors.Item Open Access Entwicklung und Integration neuartiger Komponenten für Polymerelektrolytmembran- (PEM) Elektrolyseure(2018) Lettenmeier, Philipp; Friedrich, K. Andreas (Prof. Dr.)Item Open Access Wetting, de-icing and anti-icing behavior of microstructured and plasma-coated polyurethane films(2019) Grimmer, Philipp E. S.; Hirth, Thomas (Prof. Dr. rer. nat.)Ice build-up on surfaces, for example on wings of airplanes or on rotor blades of wind turbines, impairs the functionality of transportation vehicles or technical systems and reduces their safety. Therefore, functional anti-ice surfaces are being researched and developed, which shall enable an easy removal or reduce the amount of ice on the surfaces at risk. The starting hypothesis for this work is that superhydrophobic polyurethane (PU) films with microstructure base diameters of 35 µm or more reduce the wetting by water, show a low ice adhesion for easy removal of ice and reduce or delay icing. Superhydrophobic PU films for passive anti- and de-icing were created by hot embossing and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). The hot embossing process as well as the plasma coating and etching processes were analyzed for the dependence of the surface characteristics on different process parameters. The functionalized PU films were characterized for their surface topography, surface chemistry, stability against erosion, wettability, ice adhesion and icing behavior. For comparison, the ice adhesion and icing behavior were examined on relevant technical materials (aluminum, titanium, copper, glass, epoxy resin of carbon fiber reinforced polymer and other fluoropolymers) and on some commercial anti-ice coatings. The PU films were chemically analyzed by IR spectroscopy. As the first process step for functionalization, microstructures of cylindrical, elliptical or linear shape were imprinted in PU films by a hot embossing technique with different ns-pulsed laser-drilled stamps and characterized by several microscopy methods. The microstructures had heights of 15 µm to 140 µm, diameters or widths of 35 µm to 300 µm and distances (pitch values) of 50 µm to 500 µm. The embossing process was analyzed and optimized in terms of the process parameters temperature, pressure, time, PU film release temperature and reproducibility of the microstructures. In a second functionalization step (PECVD) the microstructured surfaces were coated with thin, hydrophobic plasma polymers using different fluorocarbon precursors (CHF3, C3F6 and C4F8) or hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDSO). Different process parameters for plasma coating and etching (Ar or O2 plasmas) were used in order to create various nanoscale roughness values. Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), spectroscopic ellipsometry and atomic force microscopy (AFM) were used for analysis of the chemical composition, the thickness and the nanoroughness of the plasma polymers. The functionalizations, especially the plasma coatings, were completely worn off by a UV/water weathering test (1000 h, X1a CAM 180 Test, SAE J-2527), but showed sufficient stability against sand erosion (DIN 52348), in a long-term outdoor test for 13.5 months and against fivefold repeated pull-off of ice. The silicone-like plasma coatings were more stable than the fluorocarbon plasma coatings. The wetting behavior of water was determined by static, advancing and receding contact angle measurements. Static contact angle measurements with diiodomethane (DIM) were made for determination of the surface free energies of the relevant surfaces. Advancing contact angles of over 150° and very low contact angle hysteresis values below 10° were reached on some of the cylindrically and elliptically structured PU samples with microstructure base diameters in the range of 35 µm to 50 µm. The measured water advancing contact angles did not reach the theoretical values of the Cassie-Baxter state. Starting from a mixed wetting state near Cassie-Baxter in case of the superhydrophobic PU surfaces, they approached the Wenzel state with an increasing pitch/diameter (P/d) factor. Fluorescence laser scanning microscopy images were taken of some microstructured, uncoated or plasma coated samples during the wetting by a water drop containing a fluorescent dye. These images show the Wenzel state or a mixed wetting state by visualization of the interface between the water droplet and the surface. A new icing test chamber and a test setup were developed for characterization of the ice adhesion and the icing behavior. The tensile ice adhesion was measured at -20 °C by pull-off of ice cylinders (highly purified water, (<0.056 µS/cm, diameter of 4 mm, similar to the diameter of large raindrops) and compared to the theoretical values and the wetting behavior. The technical material surfaces measured for comparison showed a high ice adhesion, which led to cohesive fractures especially on the metal surfaces, whereas some of the commercial anti-ice coatings showed lower ice adhesion values. The flat, plasma coated PU surfaces showed adhesive fractures with a reduced ice adhesion compared to the technical material surfaces and uncoated PU and revealed a good correlation of the ice adhesion with the wetting behavior of water (work of adhesion). On the other hand, the microstructured PU surfaces showed a greatly increased ice adhesion in comparison to the flat PU and technical material surfaces which was enhanced even further by the plasma coatings and did not correlate with the wetting behavior. The reason for this is the wetting transition from the Cassie-Baxter to the Wenzel state during the cooling or freezing process, leading to an increased ice-surface contact area and mechanical interlocking of the ice with the micro- and nanostructures. The freezing of water drops was examined in thermodynamic equilibrium (static experiment) and under quasi-steady conditions (dynamic experiment). In the static experiment, 15 µl water drops (corresponding to medium to large raindrops) at room temperature were dispensed onto a cold surface at a constant temperature of -20 °C. The freezing delay times, the crystallization times and the total freezing times were measured and compared to calculated expected values. On the flat samples, the freezing delay times could be extended by the plasma treatments. On the microstructured samples, the freezing (nucleation) could sometimes be delayed even further, but not always reproducible because of an unstable Cassie-Baxter state. In the dynamic experiment, 25 µl water drops (corresponding to large raindrops) were cooled down in quasi-steady conditions with the surface and the surrounding atmosphere by a constant, low cooling rate of 1 K/min while the water drop temperature was measured by an IR camera for determination of the surface-specific nucleation temperature and crystallization time. A lower nucleation temperature could be measured on the flat, plasma coated PU surfaces compared to uncoated PU and the hydrophilic glass and metal surfaces. The superhydrophobic PU surfaces did not show a further reduction of the nucleation temperature because of an unstable Cassie-Baxter state. The resulting measured nucleation temperatures were compared to the expected values calculated with an enhanced nucleation theory including a quasi-liquid interfacial layer of the ice nucleus and a Poisson process. Overall, it is shown that hot embossing and PECVD are useful processes for creating superhydrophobic PU surfaces with regard to a roll-to-roll process. The flat, plasma coated PU films show a reduced ice adhesion and lowered nucleation temperature compared to the relevant technical material surfaces. The microstructured, plasma coated PU films are far more water repellent than the flat, plasma coated PU surfaces or the other technical materials. However, the microstructures with base diameters of 35 µm or more and the nanoroughness of the plasma coatings cannot stabilize the Cassie-Baxter state of a freezing water drop enough for a low ice adhesion or a significant decrease of the nucleation temperature. These superhydrophobic PU films are therefore not more icephobic than the flat, plasma coated PU films. In the outlook, the reduction of the geometrical parameters of the microstructures (diameter D, distance P) and nanostructures (curvature radius R) of the surface functionalizations for lower ice adhesion values and nucleation temperatures is proposed.Item Open Access Agglomeratstabilität von Nanopartikeln in Flammen zur Untersuchung der Freisetzung von Nanopartikeln bei der Abfallverbrennung(2023) Lang, Inge-Maria; Seifert, Helmut (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Diese Arbeit untersucht die Stabilität von agglomerierten Ceroxid-Nanopartikeln in Flammen. Hierzu wurde Ceroxid-Aerosol in Laborflammen, in eine Drehrohr-Pilotanlage und in eine industrielle Sonderabfallverbrennungsanlage, eingebracht. Die Partikelgrößenverteilungen sowie CeO2-Konzentrationen im Abgas, Abwasser und Reststoffen der Abgasreinigung wurden gemessen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass sich CeO2-Agglomerate bereits weit unter dem Schmelzpunkt des Bulkmaterials zersetzen und im Abgas hohe Konzentrationen von Nanopartikeln bilden. Trotzdem tritt bei der thermischen Abfallbehandlung keine Freisetzung von CeO2 -Nanopartikeln in die Umgebung auf, da diese im Abgas mit dem Flugstaub agglomerieren und in der Abgasreinigung zurückgehalten werden. In Laboruntersuchungen mit einer Propan-Vormischflamme zersetzen sich CeO2-Agglomerate im Bereich von 1.400 bis 1.750°C und bilden hohe Konzentrationen von Nanopartikeln im Bereich von 7-15 nm. Die fahlgelbe Flammenfärbung weist auf die Bildung gasförmiger Cer-Spezies hin, die im kühleren Abgas Partikel bilden, deren mit HR-TEM bestimmte Gitterkonstante mit CeO2 übereinstimmt. Durch parallele Untersuchungen in einem Rohrofen im Temperaturbereich bis 1.600°C wurde ein reiner Temperatureffekt ausgeschlossen. Bei der Zersetzung dürften somit reduzierende Flammenbestandteile eine wesentliche Rolle spielen. Bei den Tracer-Versuchen an der Pilotanlage am Campus Nord des KIT und an der Rückstandsverbrennungsanlage in Dormagen wurde gleichermaßen vorgegangen, indem eine Ceroxid-Suspension mit einem Partikeldurchmesser von 40 nm in den Brennraum eingedüst und im Rauchgas die Konzentration und die Größenverteilung von Ceroxid bestimmt wurde. Im Rauchgas beider Anlagen wurden Partikel mit einem Durchmesser von weniger als 20 nm gemessen. Somit finden hier die gleichen Prozesse statt, welche, wie in den Laborversuchen, zur Bildung einer neuen Partikelfraktion führen. Die elementspezifische Massenverteilung des Cers durch die ICP-MS Analyse der einzelnen Impaktorstufen zeigt die Agglomeration der Ceroxidpartikel mit dem Flugstaub. Die Wiederfindungsrate im Rauchgas lag bei 30% des eindosierten Ceroxid-Tracers. In der nassen Rauchgasreinigung (RGR) der Rückstandsverbrennungsanlage (RVA) wurden 99,99%, bezogen auf die insgesamt zudosierte Tracer-Menge, abgeschieden. Die Bilanzierung der wässrigen Stoffströme der RGR zeigt, dass 69% der Tracermenge in Quensche und saurem Wäscher abgeschieden werden. Im Filtrat der Waschwasserbehandlung, in der alle Stoffströme der RGR gereinigt werden, lag die Konzentration an Cer unterhalb der Nachweisgrenze. D. h., dass die gesamte Menge an abgeschiedenen Partikeln aus der RVA im Filterkuchen abgeschieden wird.Item Open Access Utilization of various projectiles to mitigate fouling in tubular heat exchangers(2016) Jalalirad, Mohammad Reza; Müller-Steinhagen, Hans (Prof. Dr. Dr.-Ing. habil.)Heat exchangers are the workhorse of most chemical, petrochemical, food processing and power generating processes. Of the many types of heat exchangers, approximately 60% of the market is still dominated by shell and tube heat exchangers. One major problem of heat exchangers and particularly the shell and tube type is directly related to the deposition of unwanted materials on the heat transfer surfaces. Fouling may cause one or more of several major operating problems: i) reduction of heat transfer, ii) under-deposit corrosion, iii) increased pressure loss and iv) flow mal-distribution. There are many different mitigation techniques available in the market to maintain the surface of heat exchangers clean to some extent. Among them are projectiles of various shapes, materials and hardnesses which circulate via a separate loop through the exchanger. The advantages of this method include effective fouling mitigation and stable operating conditions. Having said that, there are nevertheless numerous unanswered questions such as optimum injection interval, minimum required shear force to remove fouling layers, applicability of projectiles at elevated temperatures, minimum required velocity of projectile propulsion, and the criterion for the selection of projectiles for any specific fouling process. The present study, as part of a European Project entitled Clean-Ex, endeavors to address some of these questions. A test rig was designed and constructed to simulate conditions under which fouling occurs in water service processes. The rig includes an online cleaning device which enables introduction of projectiles for various operating scenarios including i) continuous or ii) at different time intervals. A comprehensive set of experimental runs was carried out for crystallization fouling of CaSO4 solutions with and without projectiles. Due to laboratory restrictions, fouling runs were performed at accelerated conditions to rigorously characterize the impact of projectile cleaning in terms of injection intervals and various types of projectiles. The experimental results showed that the projectiles are capable of removing parts of the fouling layer at the early stage of the fouling process. The cleaning efficiency decreases as the fouling layer builds up such that the projectile is not effective when the asymptotic fouling is approached. In addition, shorter injection intervals of the projectiles decrease the asymptotic fouling resistance. Sintering of the fouling layer which hinders the cleaning action of projectiles should be accounted for this phenomenon. Furthermore, all projectiles decreased the induction time of the fouling process. The asymptotic fouling resistance was also approached much quicker compared to the case of no injection. The performance of any projectile lies in a trade-off between its size, texture and stiffness. Stiffness produces a shear force required to dislodge the deposit and size is required to maintain the contact area between projectile and the surface. Accordingly, a criterion was developed to determine the optimum projectile size and stiffness for best cleaning performance. The criterion shows that bigger and softer projectiles cannot last for a long time injection processes. Given the importance of size and stiffness, the projectiles were subsequently divided into two groups of hard and soft due to the required stiffness and velocity to move the projectile within the tube. To discriminate between these two groups, a new term called contact stability factor or Z factor is proposed which is a function of stiffness and size. A mechanistic model has also been developed to predict the asymptotic fouling resistance when projectiles are in operation, based on injection rate, fouling rate and removal rates. The model predicts the asymptotic fouling resistance with an accuracy of 69% based on CaSO4 concentration, saturation concentration, injection interval, shear force and contact stability of the tube with the projectile.Item Open Access Calculation of pure substance and mixture viscosities using PCP-SAFT and entropy scaling(Stuttgart : Universität Stuttgart, Institut für Technische Thermodynamik und Thermische Verfahrenstechnik, 2020) Lötgering-Lin, Oliver; Gross, Joachim (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)