Universität Stuttgart
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Item Open Access Thermal conductivity of saturated R123 and R134a : transient hot wire measurements(1990) Groß, Ulrich; Song, Youwang; Kallweit, Jörg; Hahne, ErichChemical stable chlorinated hydrocarbons destroy the protecting ozone layer in the upper parts of the atmosphere - this has been found about 15 years ago, and since that time it became more and more clear how serious the problem is. Traditional refrigerants, e.g. R11 (CCl 3F) and R12 (CCl 2F 2), have to be replaced in course of the next few years by substances which contain less or even no chlorine, for example by R123 (C2HCl 2F 3) and R134a (C 2H2 F4) respectively. Application of new substances as working fluids in refrigeration cycles and as blowing agents in foaming of polyurethane (PUR) requires detailed information about toxicological, chemical and thermophysical properties, like latent heat of vaporization, density, boiling curve, viscosity - and thermal conductivity.Item Open Access Enhancement of the REMix energy system model : global renewable energy potentials, optimized power plant siting and scenario validation(2014) Stetter, Daniel; Müller-Steinhagen, Hans (Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. DEng/Auckland)As electricity generation based on volatile renewable resources is subject to fluctuations, data with high temporal and spatial resolution on their availability is indispensable for integrating large shares of renewable capacities into energy infrastructures. The scope of the present doctoral thesis is to enhance the existing energy modelling environment REMix in terms of (i.) extending the geographic coverage of the potential assessment tool REMix-EnDaT from a European to a global scale, (ii.) adding a new plant siting optimization module REMix-PlaSMo, capable of assessing siting effects of renewable power plants on the portfolio output and (iii.) adding a new alternating current power transmission model between 30 European countries and CSP electricity imports from power plants located in North Africa and the Middle East via high voltage direct current links into the module REMix-OptiMo. With respect to the global potential assessment tool, a thorough investigation is carried out creating an hourly global inventory of the theoretical potentials of the major renewable resources solar irradiance, wind speed and river discharge at a spatial resolution of 0.45°x0.45°. A detailed global land use analysis determines eligible sites for the installation of renewable power plants. Detailed power plant models for PV, CSP, wind and hydro power allow for the assessment of power output, cost per kWh and respective full load hours taking into account the theoretical potentials, technological as well as economic data. The so-obtined tool REMix-EnDaT can be used as follows: First, as an assessment tool for arbitrary geographic locations, countries or world regions, deriving either site-specific or aggregated installable capacities, cost as well as full load hour potentials. Second, as a tool providing input data such as installable capacities and hourly renewable electricity generation for further assessments using the modules REMix-PlasMo and OptiMo. The plant siting tool REMix-PlaSMo yields results as to where the volatile power technologies photovoltaics and wind are to be located within a country in order to gain distinct effects on their aggregated power output. Three different modes are implemented: (a.) Optimized plant siting in order to obtain the cheapest generation cost, (b.) a minimization of the photovoltaic and wind portfolio output variance and (c.) a minimization of the residual load variance. The third fundamental addition to the REMix model is the amendment of the module REMix-OptiMo with a new power transmission model based on the DC load flow approximation. Moreover, electricity imports originating from concentrating solar power plants located in North Africa and the Middle East are now feasible. All of the new capabilities and extensions of REMix are employed in three case studies: In case study 1, using the module REMix-EnDaT, a global potential assessment is carried out for 10 OECD world regions, deriving installable capacities, cost and full load hours for PV, CSP, wind and hydro power. According to the latter, photovoltaics will represent the cheapest technology in 2050, an average of 1634 full load hours could lead to an electricity generation potential of some 5500 PWh. Although CSP also taps solar irradiance, restrictions in terms of suitable sites for erecting power plants are more severe. For that reason, the maximum potential amounts to some 1500 PWh. However, thermal energy storage can be used, which, according to this assessment, could lead to 5400 hours of full load operation. Onshore wind power could tap a potential of 717 PWh by 2050 with an average of 2200 full load hours while offshore, wind power plants could achieve a total power generation of 224 PWh with an average of 3000 full load hours. The electricity generation potential of hydro power exceeds 3 PWh, 4600 full load hours of operation are reached on average. In case study 2, using the module REMix-PlaSMo, an assessment for Morocco is carried out as to determine limits of volatile power generation in portfolios approaching full supply based on renewable power. The volatile generation technologies are strategically sited at specific locations to take advantage of available resources conditions. It could be shown that the cost optimal share of volatile power generation without considering storage or transmission grid extensions is one third. Moreover, the average power generation cost using a portfolio consisting of PV, CSP, wind and hydro power can be stabilized at about 10 €ct/kWh by the year 2050. In case study 3, using the module REMix-OptiMo, a validation of a TRANS-CSP scenario based upon high shares of renewable power generation is carried out. The optimization is conducted on an hourly basis using a least cost approach, thereby investigating if and how demand is met during each hour of the investigated year. It could be shown, that the assumed load can safely be met in all countries for each hour using the scenario's power plant portfolio. Furthermore, it was proven that dispatchable renewable power generation, in particular CSP imports to Europe, have a system stabilizing effect. Using the suggested concept, the utilization of the transfer capacities between countries would decrease until 2050.Item Open Access Renewable energy based electricity supply at low costs : development of the REMix model and application for Europe(2012) Scholz, Yvonne; Müller-Steinhagen, Hans (Prof. Dr.)Climate change, limited fossil fuel availability and the dependency on energy carrier imports lead the European Union to the formulation of an energy policy for Europe. The EU sets the following criteria for its future energy supply: sustainability, security of supply and competitiveness. Considering the carbon dioxide emissions of fossil fuels and the unsolved problem of the ultimate disposal of radioactive waste, only renewable energy can currently be considered sustainable if applied in a socially acceptable way and in accordance with nature conservation. The use of renewable energy can also reduce the dependency on energy carrier imports. Contrary to fossil fuels, renewable energy will become cheaper in the future due to technological learning. The main disadvantage of some renewable energy resources is their fluctuating availability. Adaptation of the energy supply system must take place especially in the power sector in order to reliably cover fluctuating demand with fluctuating resources at any time. In this work, the energy system model ‘REMix’ (Renewable Energy Mix for Sustainable Electricity Supply) is developed. It uses data on the availability of renewable energy across Europe and North Africa (EUNA) to dimension low-cost power supply structures for the EUNA-region, or parts of it, under specific conditions, such as specified shares of renewable energy in the power supply or specified national self-supply shares. The model takes into account the costs of generation technologies, transmission lines and storage units, and finds a combination of these technologies and their geographic locations that is least-cost under the given assumptions. A geographic information system was used for the analysis of the installable capacities and power generation potentials of typical technologies for harnessing renewable energy resources. This analysis is described and the potentials of solar PV, solar CSP, wind onshore and wind offshore, biomass, hydro and geothermal power plants are shown in tables and maps. The data are used as input into a linear programming energy system model which uses them as constraints on the power supply system to be dimensioned. The model, its sensitivity to input parameter variations and a test application are described. The findings confirm the basic findings of other work in this field: transmission lines can be a crucial element of a low-cost, renewable-energy-based electricity supply because they enable balancing effects in a large grid and the use of the highest quality resources even in remote areas, such as deserts or at sea. However, the international cooperation that is necessary to reach the cost-minimum for a given supply task may not be reached by politics or resulting dependencies may be opposed to political goals. Therefore, REMix was built such that countries can be examined individually and the influence of different parameters on their energy supply costs and structure can be investigated. In the test model application, power supply systems for 36 regions in Europe and North Africa, almost all individual countries, are designed with REMix as island grids on the one hand and on the other hand as a network without transmission restrictions (other than the costs of the transmission lines). The model shows that in certain regions the island grid electricity costs can be much higher than, only a little higher than, or even lower than the electricity costs in the network, under the given technological and economic assumptions. The sensitivity to parameter variations is shown to be high; the results of the test application must therefore be considered one example of a technically feasible and efficient supply system but cannot claim to be least-cost in general.Item Open Access Effektive Wärmeleitfähigkeit von Metalllhydriden(1994) Kallweit, Jörg; Song, Youwang; Spindler, Klaus; Hahne, ErichIn der Phase II des Teilprojektes B4 im SFB 270 wird auf experimentellem Wege der Einfluß verschiedener Parameter auf die effektive Wärmeleitfähigkeit von Metallhydriden und damit auf den Wärme- und Stofftransport ermittelt. Die Versuchsergebnisse werden mit Ergebnissen aus Modellrechnungen verglichen. Die Messungen der effektiven Wärmeleitfähigkeit an HWT 5800 (Ti 0,98, Zr 0,02, V 0,43, Fe 0,09, Cr 0,05, Mn1,5) sowie an Mg (Ni-dotiert) erfolgen mit Hilfe der in Phase I aufgebauten Heißdraht-Apparatur. Diese wurde lediglich für den Hochtemperaturbereich geringfügig modifiziert. Aufbauend auf dem Modell der Einheitszelle von Zehner, Bauer und Schlünder für nicht reagierende Schüttungen wird ein erweitertes Modell zur Berechnung der effektiven Wärmeleitfähigkeit von Metallhydrid-Schüttungen entwickelt. Dabei werden die aus der Elastizitätstheorie abgeleiteten Zusammenhänge der Hertzschen Pressung verwendet. Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung des Wärmetransports wie das Einbringen von Wärmeleitstrukturen können hierin ebenfalls berücksichtigt werden. Für Metallhydrid-Materialien, die zum Versintern neigen (Mg) und somit selbst eine Wärmeleitstruktur bilden, ist das erweiterte Modell bisher nicht anwendbar.Item Open Access Effective thermal conductivity of metal hydride powders : measurement and theoretical modelling(1994) Kallweit, Jörg; Hahne, ErichDesorption of hydrogen from metal hydrides requires a supply of reaction enthalpy, absorption requires the removal of this enthalpy. Therefore, the effective thermal conductivity λe of the powdered metal hydride strongly influences the velocity of absorbing and desorbing hydrogen. Based on the cellular-model by Zehner, Bauer and Schlünder (1970, 1972, 1978) for porous media with inert void gases, an extended model is developed to calculate λe of powdery materials with a reaction between gas and solid. This reaction causes an elastic expansion of the particles. The extended model also takes into account methods of increasing λe such as a built-in metallic matrix.Item Open Access Effektive Wärmeleitfähigkeit von Metallhydrid-Materialien zur Speicherung von Wasserstoff(1994) Kallweit, Jörg; Hahne, Erich (Prof. Dr.-Ing.)Aufbauend auf dem Modell der Einheitszelle von Zehner, Bauer und Schlünder für pulverförmige Stoffe mit inerten Füllgasen wird ein erweitertes Modell zur Berechnung der effektiven Wärmeleitfähigkeit λe für Schüttungen mit Reaktion zwischen Feststoff und Füllgas erstellt. Maßnahmen zur Erhöhung von λe wie das Einbringen einer metallischen Wärmeleitmatrix oder das Aufbringen einer zusatzlichen äußeren Last können mit diesem erweiterten Modell ebenfalls berücksichtigt werden. Ein Vergleich zwischen den gemessenen und berechneten Werten der effektiven Wärmeleitfähigkeit sehr unterschiedlicher Metallhydrid-Materialien zeigt eine gute Übereinstimmung. Experimentelle Untersuchungen erfolgen am Niedertemperatur-Metallhydrid HWT 5800 und am Mitteltemperatur-Metallhydrid LaNi4,7Al0,3Hx bei Temperaturen und Drücken im Bereich -80 < ϑ < 140 °C bzw. 10-6 < p < 60 bar. Die Porosität des nicht hydrierten Metallpulvers wird zwischen 0,445 und 0,6 variiert. Die Versuchsanlage arbeitet nach dem transienten Heißdrahtverfahren. Als Haupteinflußgröße für die effektive Wärmeleitfähigkeit erweist sich der anliegende Wasserstoffdruck, während die Temperatur nur indirekt einen Einfluß zeigt. Im Bereich des jeweiligen Druckplateaus der Konzentrations-Druck-Isothermen (KDI) wird der für Schüttungen typische Smoluchowski-Verlauf von einem zusätzlichen Effekt überlagert: Die Einlagerung von Wasserstoffatomen auf Zwischengitterplätzen im Metallgitter bewirkt einen Phasenwechsel, der eine Volumendehnung der Partikel nach sich zieht. Die damit verbundene zusätzliche Pressung der Partikel verursacht eine Vergrößerung des Kontaktflächenanteils und damit eine Erhöhung von λe. Dem entgegen wirkt die Abnahme der Feststoffwärmeleitfähigkeit mit zunehmender Hydrierung. Ergänzend wird im erweiterten Modell für reagierende Schüttungen der während der ersten Be- und Entladezyklen stattfindende Partikelzerfall berücksichtigt, der die anfänglich polydisperse Schüttung in Richtung monodispers verschiebt. Die mittlere freie Weglänge der Wasserstoffmoleküle erreicht aufgrund des Partikelzerfalls auch im technisch noch relevanten Druckbereich eine mit den Porenabmessungen vergleichbare Größenordnung.Item Open Access Messung der effektiven Wärmeleitfähigkeit von Metallhydrid LaNi4,7Al0,3Hx in Pulverform(1991) Groß, Ulrich; Song, Youwang; Kallweit, Jörg; Hahne, ErichInhalt der Phase I des Teilprojektes B4 im SFB 270 sind Konzeption, Konstruktion und Aufbau einer Heißdraht-Apparatur zur Messung der effektiven Wärmeleitfähigkeit von Metallhydridpulver sowie die Ausführung erster Messungen an Materialien im MitteItemperaturbereich. Im vorliegenden Bericht wird die entwickelte Apparatur beschrieben, außerdem werden erste Versuchsergebnisse mit dem Mitteltemperatur-Metallhydrid LaNi4,7Al0.3Hx vorgestellt. Die Messungen der effektiven Wärmeleitfähigkeit erfolgen bei Temperaturen und Drücken im Bereich -20 < ν < 100°C bzw. 10-6 < p < 30 bar, und zwar unter folgenden Bedingungen: - Nicht-aktiviertes Metallpulver im Anlieferungszustand mit unterschiedlichen Füllgasen (Argon, Stickstoff, Helium, Wasserstoff), - Metallhydrid bei Absorption und Desorption von Wasserstoff, bei unterschiedlichen Drücken, Temperaturen, Konzentrationen. Als Haupteinflußgröße für die effektive Wärmeleitfähigkeit erweist sich der Druck (Smoluchowski-Effekt). Der Wert von λeff nimmt zusätzlich durch die bei der Beladung steigende Wasserstoffkonzentration etwas zu, während die Temperatur keinen Einfluß zeigt. Bei Absorption und Desorption ergibt sich eine geringfügige Hysterese.Item Open Access Convection effects on stratification during charging of a hot water store(1989) Hahne, Erich; Kübler, Rainer; Kallweit, JörgIn domestic hot water stores the preservation of hot water layers is essential for the effective operation. Such stores are operated intermittently: when hot water is taken from the store, cold water is fed into it, so that part of the water in the store is hot and part of it is cold. These two parts should not mix, because this would deteriorate the efficiency of the store. When mixing occurs between the hot and cold parts, the hot water temperature is decreased. Thus, the store has, to be heated to a temperature above the needed temperature from the very beginning. With higher temperature, heat losses are also larger. More heat has to be fed into the mixed store than into the stratified when the same amount of heat shall be taken out with the same amount of water. Consequently, the energetic store efficiency as the ratio of heat taken from the store to heat fed into the store is less when the store temperature is higher. Thus, the store with no mixing is the best store.Item Open Access The evaluation of thermal stratification by exergy(1989) Hahne, Erich; Kübler, Rainer; Kallweit, JörgWhat makes a good heat store? Is it a large store, with a large volume? And is the largest the best? We experienced this question when the first solar houses were built: many stores were oversized and never reached temperatures high enough for heating. It was learned that consumer needs, solar collector areas a nd storage capacity have to be well balanced to give a satisfying solar heating system. Not to speak of costs which usually promote the final decision. It is quite simple to calculate external losses; it is complicated and requires a number of assumptions to calculate internal degradation. But nevertheless, there is the need to quantify advantages and disadvantages of the various stores in order to compare them and to improve them.