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Item Open Access Designing covalent organic framework‐based light‐driven microswimmers toward therapeutic applications(2023) Sridhar, Varun; Yildiz, Erdost; Rodríguez‐Camargo, Andrés; Lyu, Xianglong; Yao, Liang; Wrede, Paul; Aghakhani, Amirreza; Akolpoglu, Birgul M.; Podjaski, Filip; Lotsch, Bettina V.; Sitti, MetinWhile micromachines with tailored functionalities enable therapeutic applications in biological environments, their controlled motion and targeted drug delivery in biological media require sophisticated designs for practical applications. Covalent organic frameworks (COFs), a new generation of crystalline and nanoporous polymers, offer new perspectives for light‐driven microswimmers in heterogeneous biological environments including intraocular fluids, thus setting the stage for biomedical applications such as retinal drug delivery. Two different types of COFs, uniformly spherical TABP‐PDA‐COF sub‐micrometer particles and texturally nanoporous, micrometer‐sized TpAzo‐COF particles are described and compared as light‐driven microrobots. They can be used as highly efficient visible‐light‐driven drug carriers in aqueous ionic and cellular media. Their absorption ranging down to red light enables phototaxis even in deeper and viscous biological media, while the organic nature of COFs ensures their biocompatibility. Their inherently porous structures with ≈2.6 and ≈3.4 nm pores, and large surface areas allow for targeted and efficient drug loading even for insoluble drugs, which can be released on demand. Additionally, indocyanine green (ICG) dye loading in the pores enables photoacoustic imaging, optical coherence tomography, and hyperthermia in operando conditions. This real‐time visualization of the drug‐loaded COF microswimmers enables unique insights into the action of photoactive porous drug carriers for therapeutic applications.Item Open Access Interphases between alkali metals (Li, Na) and battery electrolytes : ion transport and growth behavior(2022) Lim, Kyungmi; Maier, Joachim (Prof. Dr.)Item Open Access Confirmation of siderazot, Fe3N1.33, the only terrestrial nitride mineral(2021) Bette, Sebastian; Theye, Thomas; Bernhardt, Heinz-Jürgen; Clark, William P.; Niewa, RainerSiderazot, the only terrestrial nitride mineral, was reported only once in 1876 to occur as coating on volcanic rocks in a fumarolic environment from Mt. Etna and, to date, has been neither confirmed nor structurally characterized. We have studied the holotype sample from the Natural History Museum, London, UK, originally collected by O. Silvestri in 1874, and present siderazot with epsilon-Fe3N-type crystal structure and composition of Fe3N1.33(7) according to crystal structure Rietveld refinements, in good agreement with electron microprobe analyses. Crystal structure data, chemical composition, and Raman and reflectance measurements are reported. Possible formation conditions are derived from composition and phase stability data according to synthetic samples.Item Open Access Elektrische und magnetische Eigenschaften metallreicher Seltenerdmetallhalogenide(2004) Ryazanov, Mikhail; Simon Arndt (Prof. Dr.)Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden metallreiche Seltenerdmetallhalogenide unterschiedlicher Valenzelektronenkonzentration dargestellt und ihre physikalischen Eigenschaften untersucht. Dafür wurde sowohl der Weg des Einbaus von Interstitialwasserstoffatomen in die Kristallstruktur als auch die Möglichkeit der Kationen- bzw. Anionensubstitution beschritten. Es wurden Hydridiodide und ternaere Iodidtelluride von Y, La und Gd synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Magnetische und elektrische Messungen weisen auf eine erhebliche Änderung der physikalischen Eigenschaften in Abhängigkeit vom Wasserstoffgehalt hin. Es wurden verschiedene auffallende Effekte, wie z.B. Kolossal-Magnetwiderstand sowie auch Spinclusterglas-Verhalten, beobachtet.Item Open Access Polymer electrolyte membrane degradation and mobility in fuel cells : a solid-state NMR investigation(2010) Ghassemzadeh Khoshkroodi, Lida; Müller, Klaus (Prof. Dr.)It is generally believed that fuel cells will play an important role in energy technology already in the near future. Operating polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) at temperatures higher than 100 °C and reduced humidity is anticipated to avoid most of the shortcomings associated with the low-temperature fuel cell operation, such as CO poisoning of the electrode catalysts, slow electrode kinetics of the oxygen reduction reaction and expensive water/thermal management. To date, the operation temperature of PEMFCs is limited to about 90 °C, and this limit is given by the properties of the perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) ionomer, Nafion, which is commonly used as a separator material. Apart from the proton conductivity decay at higher temperature and lower humidification, it is also the limited stability of Nafion preventing it from long term operation. Despite the high stability of the PTFE backbone in Nafion, severe deterioration is observed during fuel cell operation. Formation of pinholes and cracks, thinning of the membranes and decrease of ion exchange capacity were reported. The fluorine release indicated that the bond cleavage process takes place under fuel cell operating conditions. Bond cleavage was initially believed to proceed from radical attacks to the carboxyl groups terminating the PTFE backbone of Nafion, and it was claimed to be controlled by the endcapping of the polymer backbone with a CF3 group. However, the release of fluoride was reported even after endcapping of the materials. The observations proved that bond cleavage limits the stability of PFSA membranes, but the elementary reactions and consequences on the membrane microstructure are not fully understood yet. In this work, it has been tried to get new insights into the problems of long term stability of polymer electrolytes for low temperature fuel cells. The aim was to identify the changes in the chemical structure of the membrane after operating in a fuel cell. This understanding is essential for extending the operation limit of PFSA-type membranes by either improving the membrane properties or adjusting the conditions within the running fuel cell. In the present work, therefore the changes taking place in PFSA membranes after applying in-situ and ex-situ aging protocols have been investigated. While the in-situ experiments provide a global picture, the analysis of membranes after ex-situ tests, with various conditions, allows the separation of different types of reactions. In previous studies the degradation changes were mainly monitored by analyzing the released water of the fuel cell or by using the liquid ionomers. In this work with the help of solid-state NMR spectroscopy, the direct study of the chemical structure and dynamics of the polymer membranes before and after the degradation tests became possible. The structural changes in different parts of the PFSA membranes were first inspected after an in-situ aging test. These examined membranes (Nafion and Hyflon Ion) differed by the length of the side chains. The comparison of the solid-state 13C and 19F NMR data of polymers before and after the in-situ degradation test showed that changes can take place not only in the main chain of the polymer, but also within the polymer side chains, as reflected by changes of NMR signals associated with CFSO3, CF3, OCF2 and CF groups. The degree of degradation is found to decrease with increasing membrane thickness while for a given thickness the short side chain polymer, Hyflon Ion, appears to degrade less than Nafion. In order to understand the reason for these observations, a new ex-situ method has been developed to mimic the degradation of polymer electrolyte membranes in PEM fuel cells (caused by the cross-leakage of H2 and O2). In this ex-situ setup, it was possible to expose membranes to flows of different gases with controlled temperature and humidity. H+-form Nafion films with and without electrode layer (Pt) have been treated in the presence of different gases in order to simulate the anode and cathode side of a PEMFC. The changes of the chemical structure occurring during the degradation tests were primarily examined by solid-state 19F NMR spectroscopy. For completion, liquid-state NMR studies and ion exchange capacity measurements were performed. It was found that degradation occurs only when both H2 and O2 are present (condition of gas cross-leakage), and when the membrane is coated with Pt catalyst. The chemical degradation rate is found to be highest for H2-rich mixtures of H2 and O2, which corresponds to the conditions at the anode under OCV. It is further shown that side chain disintegration is very important for chemical degradation, although backbone decomposition also might take place. The fact that in-situ degradation effects were reproduced by the present ex-situ experiments, suggest that membrane degradation in a running fuel cell is mainly the consequence of chemical aging. Detecting the degradation for the membranes coated with Pt in the presence of both gases, H2 and O2, points toward the importance of radicals in the degradation process, which in a running fuel cell (in-situ conditions) may only form in the presence of some gas cross-over, allowing H2 and O2 to react at the Pt catalyst of the anode or cathode structure. Since the gas cross-over increases for the thinner Nafion membrane, these results indirectly explain the higher degradation rate of thin Nafion in the in-situ degradation test. The chemical degradation and stability of PFSA membranes against radical attacks was also investigated in a Fenton ex-situ degradation test. Liquid and solid-state NMR as well as ATR-FTIR spectroscopy were applied to the samples before and after the Fenton reaction. A Comparison of the degradation rate of Nafion and Hyflon Ion in the ex-situ Fenton test again proved that the Hyflon Ion membrane is more stable than Nafion. Comparing the degradation rate of the side chain in these two polymers showed that the stability of Hyflon Ion is mainly due to the shortening of the side chain in this polymer. Hence, the absence of one ether group and the tertiary carbon reduces the degradation rate of the side chain and makes this polymer less sensitive to the radical attacks than Nafion. For the performance of a membrane not only the chemical structure but also the polymer dynamics is important. Therefore the molecular mobility of the ionomer was investigated by variable temperature 19F NMR lineshape, T1 and T1ρ relaxation experiments. The decrease of the temperature dependent linewidth was explained by the reduction of static disorder in the Nafion membrane. From the relaxation data there was evidence for structural annealing, which is independent of the chemical degradation. Chemical degradation is considered to reduce the chain flexibility (i.e. the motional amplitudes), which may be explained by chain cross-linking and condensation reaction for the side chains. To overcome the problem of Nafion's low conductivity at temperatures above 100 °C and low relative humidity, also composite membranes were introduced. These membranes consist of Nafion modified by inorganic oxide additives. It has been reported that under dry conditions, these membranes show enhanced water uptake and water diffusion when compared with filler-free Nafion. In order to understand the reason for the better performance of these polymers, the impact of the oxide particles on the polymer dynamics has been investigated. [Nafion/(SiO2)x] composite membranes in the dry and wet state with x ranging from 0 to 15 w/w% were investigated by variable temperature solid-state 19F NMR spectroscopy. 19F T1 and T1ρ relaxation times and NMR lineshapes were analyzed in order to get details about the polymer mobility. It is concluded that solid oxide SiO2 particles play an important role in stabilizing the chemical structure and morphology of the polymer especially in the dry state. The filler particles lead to higher mobility of polymer chains, if the filler content has an optimized value of about 9 w/w%. The results were further supported by comparing the sideband intensity as well as the linewidth in 19F NMR and recording the 19F{1H} CP/MAS NMR spectra. Furthermore, it has been shown that the structure of composite membranes is more stable after dehydration and possible condensation reactions are less likely in these membranes. The presence of filler particles decrease the chance for morphology changes and close packing of polymer chains in the dry state. Also the decrease of ionic exchange capacity after dehydration is less severe for the composite membrane as compared to filler-free Nafion. In conclusion, the present results provide a complete picture of solid membrane before and after degradation and of possible mechanisms for radical formation and radical attacks to the polymer. In addition, it is shown which changes can occur in the morphology of polymer chains in low humidification and high temperature. Some general suggestions for the better performance of polymer electrolyte membrane are therefore: For improving the performance of polymer electrode membrane, the sources for the radical formation in the fuel cell should be controlled. This can be possible to some extend by avoiding the use of iron end plates in the fuel cells. Also the chance for the gas crossover through the membrane should be decreased. Thicker membranes show less gas cross-over. By taking into account the higher resistivity of thicker membranes, an optimized membrane thickness should be selected. Hydrocarbon sulfonated polyetherketones possess narrower hydrophilic channels which significantly reduce electroosmotic drag, water permeation as well as gas cross-over. Also the short side chain perfluorinated polymer, Hyflon Ion, with lower electroosmotic drag of water should possess a reduced gas cross-over though the membrane. The more efficient way for decreasing degradation is to use membranes which are stable against radical attacks. At this point the perfluorinated polymers are still the best available membranes. Endcapping of the backbone in these polymers and decreasing the concentration of reactive end groups like COOH during the polymer manufacturing process can significantly decrease degradation. To minimize degradation of the side chains in perfluorinated polymers, short side chain polymers are suggested because of less reactive groups for the radical attacks and higher concentration of acidic groups. When higher operation temperatures are required, composite Nafion membranes might be used. The higher stability of these membranes makes them advantageous for operating at evaluated temperatures and low relative humidity. The novel results from the present work lead to a better understanding of membrane degradation, which still represents a serious problem for fuel cells under operation conditions, and provide important indications for future developments of membranes with improved performance for alternative energy conversion devices.Item Open Access Ab initio thermodynamic study of defective strontium titanate(2013) Blokhin, Evgeny; Maier, Joachim (Prof. Dr.)In the presented thesis the perfect and defective SrTiO3 bulk crystals and their (001) surfaces are considered on ab initio level. Since the experimental study of the complex defective systems is comparatively expensive and difficult, and the computer performance has been greatly increased in the last years, the ab initio modeling became very efficient tool to be applied in this field. Additionally, there is a significant industrial demand for the investigation and improvements of the performance of the perovskite-based electrochemical devices, e.g. solid oxide fuel cells and permeation membranes. Finally, there is a lack of methodological studies on defect thermodynamics. The oxygen vacancies and iron impurities, as well as their complexes, are the characteristic defects in SrTiO3 perovskite material. The understanding of basic defect properties and defect-induced phenomena under realistic external conditions requires calculation of thermodynamic properties (the free energy and entropy effects). Thus, thesis is focused on atomic vibrations, i.e. phonons, which are necessary to go beyond standard 0°K approximation and to provide a link to the thermodynamic properties at finite temperatures. This is necessary for a realistic treatment of electrochemical devices. The chosen ab initio modeling scheme is found to ensure the most accurate description simultaneously for the structural, electron and phonon properties of the perfect SrTiO3. Namely, the splitting of the phonon frequencies due to the antiferrodistortive phase transition at 105°K is confirmed to be very small (2–12 cm-1). The experimental temperature dependence of the SrTiO3 heat capacity is also successfully reproduced. Further, the modeling scheme is applied for thermodynamic treatment of oxygen vacancies and iron impurities in SrTiO3 at finite temperatures. The calculated phonon densities of states and group-theoretical study of the defect-induced phonon frequencies are used for the experiment analysis. Several defect-induced local phonon modes are identified, and the experimental Raman- and IR-spectroscopy data are interpreted. The Jahn-Teller-type local lattice distortion around both Fe4+ impurity and oxygen vacancy VO is shown to result in Raman- and IR-active phonons. In particular, the experimentally observed Raman frequency near 700 cm-1 is shown to arise for both defects due to a local O ion stretching vibration nearby the Jahn-Teller defect. However, an absence of such a frequency in an experimental phonon spectrum is found to be a manifestation of formation of Fe3+–VO complexes with oxygen vacancies in the first coordination sphere of iron impurities. The Gibbs formation energy calculated for the neutral oxygen vacancies in bulk SrTiO3 taking into account the phonon contribution is found to be in excellent agreement with the experiment. The phonon contribution to the formation energy is shown to increase with temperature, to about 5% above 1000°K. The predicted relative stability of several structural complexes of oxygen vacancy and iron impurity in SrTiO3 is confirmed by known experimental measurements. Several structural models of such Fe3+–VO complexes in SrTiO3 are discriminated according to the XANES and EXAFS experiments. On an example of SrO-terminated SrTiO3 ultrathin films, the one-dimensional confinement effect on the vacancy formation energy is found to be inconsiderable at 0°K. The phonon contribution to the Gibbs free energy of VO formation in such ultrathin films at finite temperatures is shown to be minor. This suggests the further account of anharmonic effects is required. The workflow developed in thesis is proposed for the modeling of wide class of defects in non-metallic solids. Several auxiliary computer tools were designed in order to simplify such possible studies.Item Open Access Mixed-conducting (Ba,Sr)(Co,Fe,Zn)O3-δ as cathode material for proton-conducting ceramic fuel cells : defect chemistry and oxygen reduction mechanism(2014) Pötzsch, Daniel; Maier, Joachim (Prof. Dr.)In the present study mixed-conducting solid oxides with perovskite structure are investigated regarding their applicability as oxygen electrode (cathode) in solid oxide fuel cells based on proton-conducting electrolyte membranes. This type of high temperature fuel cells is a promising device as it may allow one to decrease the operating temperature. At reduced temperatures the overpotential of the cathode dominants over all contributions to the performance of the fuel cell. Hence, it is mandatory to systematically and purposefully enhance the catalytic activity of the cathode, for which a fundamental understanding of the electrochemical properties of the materials is key. These properties are inter alia determined by the defect chemistry of the material's mobile charge carriers. In humid, oxidizing atmosphere at elevated temperature three defects have to be considered: Oxygen vacancies, interstitial protonic defects associated with a regular oxygen site and electron holes. A mixed proton/hole conductivity in the cathode is highly desired as to make the whole electrode surface catalytically active for water formation. The bulk thermodynamic and transport behavior regarding three mobile charge carriers are significantly more complex than for systems with only'' two mobile defects. Numerical simulations are necessary to describe and understand the bulk thermodynamic and transport properties. The proton concentration of mixed-conducting perovskites was ex-situ determined by Karl-Fischer titration and thermogravimetry analyzing the mass spectrometer signal, and in-situ by dynamic, thermogravimetric relaxation experiments upon step-wise changes in the water partial pressure. BSFZ was found to be the most promising candidate of the four and, therefore, selected for further investigations. From a thermodynamic point of view two limiting possibilities incorporating protons are identified: Incorporating a water molecule occupying an oxygen vacancy and forming two protonic defects (acid-base thermodynamics) and taking up water releasing simultaneously oxygen, i.e. hydration-deoxygenation, formally equivalent to pure hydrogen incorporation (redox thermodynamics). Depending on temperature, oxygen and water partial pressure any combination of both mechanisms is possible. With the help of numerically simulating the transport behavior at different conditions, measuring the mass relaxation upon water partial pressure changes at two different oxygen partial pressures and determining the thermodynamic properties in dry conditions, the proton concentration could be calculated applying the thermodynamic model. For BSFZ the mass relaxation transients upon pH2O change were measured for two different p2O values. Interestingly, the mechanism of proton uptake was found to change from predominantly acid-base water uptake to predominantly redox hydrogen uptake. The transients could be fitted through the known solution of Fick's second law of one-dimensional diffusion into a plane sheet (with sufficiently fast surface equilibration) obtaining chemical diffusivities. The proton conductivity is calculated using its concentration and diffusivity. The obtained values are up to one and a half orders of magnitude below the proton conductivity of 15% Y-doped BaZrO3 being one of the best known high temperature proton conductors. Nevertheless, even the estimate of the lower limit of proton conductivity in BSFZ is orders of magnitude larger than a required minimum to make the whole electrode surface catalytically active. This is to the best of my knowledge the first study providing quantitative values for the proton conductivity in those mixed-conducting perovskites typically used as cathode material in solid oxide fuel cells. The electrochemical activity of BSFZ and BSCF was investigated by impedance spectroscopy. For microelectrodes the low frequency contribution typically dominates the overall impedance, and its resistance is inversely proportional to the reaction rate determining the overall oxygen to water reaction. The inverse dependence of the surface reaction resistance to the area of the microelectrode confirms that the whole electrode surface is catalytically active. Its dependency on oxygen and water partial pressure provides important information about the oxygen reduction mechanism. The exponents of the oxygen and water partial pressure dependency indicate that molecular oxygen and oxygen vacancies are participating in the rate determining step of the oxygen reduction reaction.Item Open Access On the thermal dimorphy of the strontium perrhenate Sr[ReO4]2(2024) Conrad, Maurice; Bette, Sebastian; Dinnebier, Robert E.; Schleid, ThomasHygroscopic single crystals of a new hexagonal high‐temperature modification of Sr[ReO4]2 were prepared from a melt of Sr[ReO4]2 ⋅ H2O and SrCl2 ⋅ 6 H2O. The structure analysis of the obtained crystals by X‐ray diffraction revealed that the title compound crystallizes in the ThCd[MoO4]3‐type structure with the hexagonal space group P63/m and the lattice parameters a=1023.81(7) pm and c=646.92(4) pm (c/a=0.632) for Z=2 in its quenchable high‐temperature form. Two crystallographically independent Sr2+ cations are coordinated by oxygen atoms forming either octahedra or tricapped trigonal prisms, whereas the Re7+ cations are found in the centers of discrete tetrahedral meta‐perrhenate units [ReO4]-. Temperature‐dependent in‐situ PXRD studies of dry powder samples of Sr[ReO4]2 exhibited its thermal dimorphy with a phase‐transition temperature at 500-550 °C from literature‐known m‐Sr[ReO4]2 into the newly discovered h‐Sr[ReO4]2 (hexagonal).Item Open Access Charge carrier formation, mobility and microstructure of sulfonated polyelectrolytes for electrochemical applications(2015) Wohlfarth, Andreas; Maier, Joachim (Prof. Dr.)Polyelectrolytes are materials consisting of a polymer backbone with covalently attached positively or negatively charge groups including their counterions. Sulfonated polyelectrolytes are a specific class, which is especially interesting for electrochemical application as they can be used to separate the electrodes and mediate the electrochemical reactions taking place at anode and cathode by conducting a specific ion; this ion may be H+ in the case of PEM-fuel cells or Li+ and Na+ in various battery systems. The key challenges for the development of these electrolytes is the combination of good mechanical properties and high ion transport as well as high electrochemical stability. High ionic conductivity of polyelectrolytes depends on the presence of small polar solvents to ensure efficient dissociation and mobility of the counterions. These processes cannot be understood by merely considering electrostatics (i.e. Deby-Hückel approach) such as in Manning counterion condensation theory. Specific interactions between solvent-ion-polymer and the molecular conformations have to be taken into account as well. This is one of the results of the present work using sulfonated polyelectrolytes, different cations and solvents as model systems with a combined approach of experimental techniques and simulations. The dissociation behavior of sulfonated polysulfones was investigated by a combined electrophoretic (E) NMR, pulsed magnetic field gradient (PFG) NMR and conductivity approach. Since the results from the NMR experiments, especially from E-NMR which is by far no standard measurement, are crucial for the key conclusions drawn in this thesis, some critical issues of this technique are studied and discussed in detail. E-NMR is essentially a PFG-NMR experiment with an applied electric field; the applied voltage can reach up to 300 V. Therefore, it was necessary to determine a measurement window in which no decomposition or other interfering effects appeared. In addition, polymers gererally exhibit some polydispersity with the low molecular weight fraction showing a higher diffusion coefficients and drift velocities, which had to be taken into account. By concentrating ionic groups on the polymer, specific polyelectrolyte effects show up. Dissociation is no longer complete, the interaction between ionic charges and the solvent is heavily modified and correlations of ionic motion start to appear. According to a MD-simulation, this very much depends on the polymer conformation and position of the ionic groups as well as the chemical nature of the solvent. Once the density of ionic groups (-SO3H) of polysulfones reaches a point where their average separation is of the order of the Bjerrum length of water, the degree of counterion condensation is shown to depend on details of the molecular structure and the accessible conformations of the polymer chain. In this regime, well-defined ionic aggregates occur, i.e. triple-ions form. The conformational details depend on the degrees of freedom and specific interactions between ions and solvent. When it comes to ion conducting membranes, increasing the ion exchange capacity (decreasing the average separation of ionic groups) is a common measure to increase ionic conductivity. However, the results on dissociation and conductivity of synthesized polysulfones containing octasulfonated units (currently the material with highest known IEC) clearly reveal the limit of this approach. The short separation of ionic charges in such systems at high concentrations additionally leads to electrostatic interactions between neighboring polymer strands. This is the driving force for a nanoscale ordering in polyelectrolyte membranes. Different kinds of solvents, ions and ion exchange capacities directly affect the microstructure formation. Finally, the effects of acid-base interactions between sulfonic acid-based polyelectrolytes and weakly basic modified polymers were investigated as blending of both is a way to form stable membranes for electrochemical applications. Here, the membrane formation process and the resulting properties, in particular proton conductivity, microstructure and mechanical strength have been studied. The developed polymer blends are the first example in which an improvement of mechanical properties not goes along with a significant decrease of proton conductivity. Key to success was to use a hydrophilic polymer with a high IEC and a hydrophobic polymer with a low number of basic groups. In summary, this thesis provides insides into the charge carrier formation process, the transport and microstructure of sulfonated polyelectrolytes by identifying the relevant molecular interactions. Together with the superior mechanical properties of the developed blend membranes, this work significantly contributes to solve the key challenges for electrolytes in electrochemical application.Item Open Access First-principles thermodynamic study of oxygen vacancies in ABO3-type perovskites(2017) Arrigoni, Marco; Maier, Joachim (Prof. Dr.)