04 Fakultät Energie-, Verfahrens- und Biotechnik
Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/handle/11682/5
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Item Open Access Findings from measurements of the electric power demand of air compressors(2021) Hummel, Ulf; Radgen, Peter; Ülker, Sercan; Schelle, RalphThe compressed air electric ratio (CAER) describes the ratio of the real electric power demand to the nominal mechanical power of an air compressor. The CAER is an important indicator as the electric power demand of air compressors varies throughout its operation dependent on compressor technology, pressure ratio, and free air delivery. The nameplate power of the compressor drive motor is not sufficient for evaluating the electric power demand; therefore, the CAER plays an important role in assessing the electric operating power demand. In this paper, results from measurements of fixed speed and variable speed (VFD) compressors are presented with the analysis of key influencing factors of the CAER. The data show that the pressure ratio of operating pressure to the maximum design outlet pressure has the largest impact on the CAER. For VFD compressors, the CAER is represented as a linear function dependent on the respective load. Fixed and variable speed compressors’ CAERs are always dependent on the load condition. In idle condition, the CAER was measured to be 0.2. In full load condition with a pressure ratio of 0.6, the CAER averages at a value of 0.87, meaning a 90 kW compressor at 0.6 pressure ratio draws 78.3 kW electric power.Item Open Access Multi-criteria comparison of energy and environmental assessment approaches for the example of cooling towers(2022) Wenzel, Paula M.; Radgen, PeterCooling towers remove economically or technically unusable heat using considerable amounts of electricity and, in many cases, water. Several approaches, which vary in methodology, scope, and level of detail, are used for environmental evaluations of these cooling systems. Although the chosen approach has a significant impact on decisions made at the plant level, no methodology has yet been standardized for selecting the approach that best serves the objectives of the evaluation. Thus, this paper provides comparison criteria for the systematic selection of suitable evaluation methods for cooling towers and classifies how the methods score in this respect. These criteria, such as ‘life cycle thinking’, ‘inventoried physical quantities’, ‘temporal resolution’, ‘formalization’, and ‘data availability’, are grouped by overall evaluation objectives such as ‘thoroughness’, ‘scientific soundness’, and ‘usability’. Subsequently, these criteria were used to compare material flow analysis, energy analysis, environmental network analysis, life cycle inventory, life cycle assessment, environmental footprint methods, emergy analysis, exergy analysis, and the physical optimum method. In conclusion, material flow analysis is best suited for the analysis of cooling towers when impact assessment is not required; otherwise, life cycle assessment meets most of the defined criteria. Moreover, only exergy-based methods allow for the inclusion of volatile ambient conditions.Item Open Access Dynamic prospective average and marginal GHG emission factors - scenario-based method for the German power system until 2050(2021) Seckinger, Nils; Radgen, PeterDue to the continuous diurnal, seasonal, and annual changes in the German power supply, prospective dynamic emission factors are needed to determine greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from hybrid and flexible electrification measures. For the calculation of average emission factors (AEF) and marginal emission factors (MEF), detailed electricity market data are required to represent electricity trading, energy storage, and the partial load behavior of the power plant park on a unit-by-unit, hourly basis. Using two normative scenarios up to 2050, different emission factors of electricity supply with regard to the degree of decarbonization of power production were developed in a linear optimization model through different GHG emission caps (Business-As-Usual, BAU: −74%; Climate-Action-Plan, CAP: −95%). The mean hourly German AEF drops to 182 gCO2eq/kWhel (2018: 468 gCO2eq/kWhel) in the BAU scenario by the year 2050 and even to 29 gCO2eq/kWhel in the CAP scenario with 3700 almost emission-free hours from power supply per year. The overall higher MEF decreases to 475 and 368 gCO2eq/kWhel, with a stricter emissions cap initially leading to a higher MEF through more gas-fired power plants providing base load. If the emission intensity of the imported electricity differs substantially and a storage factor is implemented, the AEF is significantly affected. Hence, it is not sufficient to use the share of RES in net electricity generation as an indicator of emission intensity. With these emission factors it is possible to calculate lifetime GHG emissions and determine operating times of sector coupling technologies to mitigate GHG emissions in a future flexible energy system. This is because it is decisive when lower-emission electricity can be used to replace fossil energy sources.Item Open Access Catalyzing cooling tower efficiency : a novel energy performance indicator and functional unit including climate and cooling demand normalization(2023) Wenzel, Paula M.; Fensterle, Eva; Radgen, PeterEnergy and climate targets necessitate efficiency indicators to reflect resource-saving potentials. Prevailing indicators for cooling towers, however, often omit the effect of outside conditions. Hence, this study introduces an innovative indicator grounded in the energy efficiency ratio. Our proposed metric is the cost–benefit ratio between electricity demand and the thermodynamic minimum airflow. Thus, we call the novel indicator the airflow performance indicator. To validate its feasibility, we apply the indicator first to an extensive dataset encompassing 6575 cooling tower models and second to a year-long case study involving a data center’s wet cooling system. As a result, the energy performance indicator demonstrates that dry cooling requires eight times more minimum airflow at the median than evaporative cooling would, directly correlating to the fan power. Furthermore, efficiency benchmarks derived from the dataset of 6575 cooling tower models provide a comparative assessment of the case study. Defining the quantified benefit as minimum airflow additionally underscores the limitations of free cooling as the wet cooling system only partly covers the cooling demand, requiring chillers additionally. In conclusion, the indicator empowers the identification of energy-saving potentials in the selection, design, and operation of cooling towers. Moreover, the functional unit definition provides a foundation for future life cycle assessments of cooling towers, enhancing cooling tower efficiency and sustainability.Item Open Access Optimized data center site selection : mesoclimatic effects on data center energy consumption and costs(2021) Turek, Dirk; Radgen, PeterThe effect of the location on the energy consumption of data centers has already been studied in detail on the macro-climatic level. To take advantage of these effects, however, it is usually necessary for the location of data centers to cross international borders. The influence of site changes within national borders and in a small radius of < 100 km has not yet been quantified. To investigate this, a dynamic mathematical model of the temperature-dependent components of a reference data center was created and the influence on the energy consumption in an area of 240 × 215 km in Germany was investigated. It could be shown that even small changes of the location within a 10 km radius of a location lead to annual energy savings in the recirculating chiller of 9.12% on average (maximum 56.58%). With a freedom of location of 100 km within national borders, savings of 37.35% on average (maximum 76.11%) are even possible. Location-dependent optimizations are therefore also relevant at local and national level with regard to their influence on energy consumption, and the consideration of mesoclimatic aspects should be an elementary part of the site selection process for data centers in the future.Item Open Access Holistic assessment of decarbonization pathways of energy-intensive industries based on exergy analysis(2023) Leisin, Matthias; Radgen, PeterThe decarbonization of the industrial sector plays a crucial role in a successful energy transition. This transformation is very costly and complex, as many of the existing production processes and plants will have to be partially or completely replaced to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This raises questions about how significant reductions in CO2 emissions resulting from decarbonization will affect the use of resources to produce a certain product and the overall value of sustainability. This article considers the relationship between CO2 reduction and the impact on the resource efficiency of an industrial production process. For this purpose, a methodology was developed that holistically assesses the decarbonization pathway of an industrial sector. This holistic assessment takes into account the energy carriers, raw materials, and auxiliary and construction materials used for the operation and building of the significant plant components and summarizes them as a total use of resources. For this purpose, the use of resources is represented by the thermodynamic quantity exergy, which takes into account both the energy and material components of a production process. The energy and material streams in a production process are balanced by applying exergetic analysis. This methodology is used for current state-of-the-art and future decarbonized production processes in order to quantify the effects of the decarbonization process. By comparing the calculated resource efficiencies, the thermodynamic impact on the sustainability of decarbonization paths can be set in relation to the amount of CO2 saved. For validation, the developed methodology is applied to a conventional and a decarbonized ammonia production process. The conventional production route represents the production of ammonia by methane steam reforming, and the decarbonized production route is represented by synthesis gas production via water electrolysis and an air separation unit. The resource efficiency of the conventional ammonia production route, taking into account the energy sources, raw materials, construction materials, and auxiliary materials used, is 59%, producing a total of 1539 kg of CO2 emissions per ton of ammonia. The decarbonized process has a resource efficiency of 45%, while no CO2 emissions are produced in this manufacturing process. This means that the decarbonization of the production process reduces resource efficiency by 14%. In relation to the reduced amount of CO2, specific resource efficiency decreases by 9.09%/tCO2. The decline in resource efficiency is mainly due to the high level of heat and energy recovery in the conventional process and the very electricity-intensive hydrogen production in the decarbonized production process.Item Open Access Free cooling for saving energy: technical market analysis of dry, wet, and hybrid cooling based on manufacturer data(2023) Wenzel, Paula M.; Mühlen, Marc; Radgen, PeterIn light of energy and climate targets, free cooling unlocks a major resource-saving potential compared to refrigeration. To fill the knowledge gap in quantifying this saving potential, we aim to specify the physical and technical limits of cooling tower applications and provide comprehensive data on electricity and water consumption. For this purpose, we distinguish six types of package-type cooling towers: dry, closed wet, open wet, and three types of hybrid systems; defining one generalized system for all types enables comparability. Subsequently, we collect data from 6730 system models of 27 manufacturers, using technical information from data sheets and additional material. The analysis reveals, for example, specific ranges of electricity demand from 0.01 to 0.06 kWel/kWth and highlights influencing factors, including type and operating point. Refrigeration systems would consume approximately ten times more electricity per cooling capacity. Furthermore, the evaluation demonstrates the functional limits, for example, the minimum cooling temperatures. Minimum outlet temperatures using evaporative cooling are up to 16 K lower than for dry cooling. The collected data have crucial implications for designing and optimizing cooling systems, including potential analysis of free cooling and efficiency assessment of cooling towers in operation.Item Open Access Analysis of cooling technologies in the data center sector on the basis of patent applications(2024) Ott, Benjamin; Wenzel, Paula M.; Radgen, PeterThe cooling of server components has been developed over the past few years in order to meet increasing cooling requirements. The growth in performance and power density increases the cooling demand. To gain a better understanding of the evolution and possible future technology developments in the field of data center cooling, a patent analysis method was used with a focus on the server and computer room levels. After the patent extraction from the European patent database for the period 2000-2023, the search results were classified and analyzed. Most of the patents deal with air or liquid cooling. Since 2015, a technological shift from air to liquid cooling can be identified on the level of patent activities. In conclusion, from the patent analysis, it can be derived that liquid cooling will continue to gain in importance in the future and could also be combined with other approaches in the form of hybrid cooling. However, air cooling may still be relevant, even if the main cooling load is handled by liquid-based approaches. At the same time, the optimization potential for air cooling seems to have been largely exploited in comparison to liquid cooling, as can be seen from the falling number of the patent applications.Item Open Access Comparing exergy analysis and physical optimum method regarding an induction furnace(2021) Wenzel, Paula M.; Radgen, Peter; Westermeyer, JanIn order to achieve energy and climate goals, energy and resource efficiency are considered a key measure. Limit-value-oriented methods such as the exergy analysis and the physical optimum method are used to show the limits of efficiency improvement. In this context, the physical optimum represents the theoretical ideal reference process. Despite their similarities, no comprehensive comparison to the exergy analysis has been carried out yet. Thus, the purpose of this study is to close this gap by examining differences and intersections using the example of an induction furnace. The minimum energy input according to the physical optimum method is 1327 MJ/t whereas the exergy of the melting product is 1393 MJ/t, depending on transit flows taken into account. The exergy analysis extends considerably beyond the physical optimum method in terms of the complexity and accuracy of the assessment of material flows by using exergy units. The exergy analysis makes clear which exergy is linked to the losses and thus reveals the potential for coupling processes. This results in different areas of application for the two methods.Item Open Access Strategien und Technologien einer pluralistischen Fern- und Nahwärmeversorgung in einem liberalisierten Energiemarkt unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung und regenerativer Energien : Kurztitel: Pluralistische Wärmeversorgung ; AGFW-Hauptstudie - erster Bearbeitungsabschnitt. Band 2, Teil 1: Wärmeversorgung des Gebäudebestandes. Teil 2: Technologieentwicklung und -bewertung(2001) Neuffer, Hans; Witterhold, Franz-Georg; Pfaffenberger, Wolfgang; Gregorzewski, Armin; Schulz, Wolfgang; Blesl, Markus; Fahl, Ulrich; Voß, Alfred; Jochem, Eberhard; Mannsbart, Wilhelm; Radgen, Peter; Schmid, Christiane; Dribbisch, Marcus; Sager, Jörg; Sander, Thomas; Zschernig, Joachim; Carter, James M.; Mauch, Wolfgang; David, R.; Dötsch, Christian; Fahlenkamp, Hans; Hölder, DanielZweiter Band der AGFW-Hauptstudie mit dem Kurztitel "Pluralistische Wärmeversorgung". Teil 1 "Wärmeversorgung des Gebäudebestandes" gliedert sich in den Hauptabschnitt A "Ökologischer und ökonomischer Vergleich verschiedener CO2-Minderungsmaßnahmen anhand unterschiedlicher Versorgungsaufgaben" und in den Hauptteil B "Grundlagen der gebäudescharfen Modellierung von Siedlungsstrukturen - Weiterentwicklung von Energisystemmodellen". Diese Abschnitte wurden maßgeblich vom Institut für Energiewirtschaft und Rationelle Energieanwendung (IER) der Universität Stuttgart bearbeitet. Teil 2 "Technologieentwicklung und -bewertung" wurde maßgeblich vom Institut für Energietechnik der Technischen Universität Dresden bearbeitet.